Quelltext der Seite Benutzer:Der Tröster/Breastfeeding in Islam

{{Importartikel}} 
{{Fiqh|marital}}
[[Breastfeeding]] is highly regarded in Islam. The Qur'an regards it as a sign of love between the mother and child. In [[Islamic law]], breastfeeding creates ties of [[milk kinship]] (known as ''raḍāʿ'' or ''riḍāʿa'' ({{lang-ar|رضاع, رضاعة}} &nbsp;{{IPA-ar|rɪˈdˤɑːʕ(æ)|pron}}) that has implications in [[Islamic family jurisprudence|family law]].<ref>{{harv|Giladi|1999|p=69}}</ref><ref>G. J. H. van Gelder, ''Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature'', {{ISBN|1-85043-855-2}}, p. 93</ref> Muslims throughout the world have varied breastfeeding traditions.

==Quran and hadith==
Several Qur'anic verses, all dating from the Medinan period, lay down the Islamic ethic of breastfeeding
<ref name=Lactation>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Avner|last=Giladi|title=Encyclopaedia of the Quran|entry=Lactation|editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|volume=3|page=106-107}}</ref>{{rp|106}} {{Cite Quran|28|7|style=nosup}} and {{Cite Quran|28|12|style=nosup}} refer to the nursing of [[Moses in Islam|Islamic prophet Moses]] to emphasize the loving bond between baby Moses and his mother.<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|106|q=Moreover, in q 28:7-12, the love and care of Moses’ mother for her nursling find emphatic expression.}} Breastfeeding is implied as a basic [[Maternal bond]] in {{Cite Quran|22|2|style=nosup}}, which considers a mother neglecting nursing of her child as an unusual sign.<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|106}}

Breastfeeding is considered a [[Children's rights|basic right of every infant]], according to the Qur'an.<ref name=FundamentalRight/>{{rp|q=The Qur’an endorses breastfeeding as a basic right for every newborn and infant}} {{Cite Quran|2|233|style=nosup}} calls on fathers to sponsor the child's nursing by providing food and clothing for the child's mother for two years, although it allows for earlier weaning of the child by mutual consent of both mother and father.<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|106}} The same verse also allows for motherly breastfeeding to be substituted by [[wet nursing]].<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|106}} {{Cite Quran|65|6|end=7|style=nosup}} expects the father of the child to be generous towards the wet nurse.<ref name=Wet-nursing/>{{rp|477}}

The Quran regards ties due to [[milk kinship]] similar to ties due to [[Consanguinity|blood kinship]].<ref name=Wet-nursing>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Avner|last=Giladi|title=Encyclopaedia of the Quran|entry=Wet-nursing|editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|volume=5|page=476-77}}</ref>{{rp|477}} Therefore {{Cite Quran|4|23|style=nosup}} prohibits a man from having sexual relations with his "milk mother" or "milk sister";<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|107}} hadith explain that the wet-nurse's husband is also included as a milk kin,<ref name=Wet-nursing/>{{rp|477}} eg. a woman may not marry her wet-nurse's husband.
According to scholars, this prohibition is not found in the Jewish and Christian tradition, though it is found in [[matrilineal]] groups.<ref name=Lactation/>{{rp|107}} 

== In Islamic law ==
Breastfeeding is considered  one of the most fundamental [[Children's rights|rights of a child]] in Islamic law.<ref name=FundamentalRight>{{cite journal|title=Breastfeeding as a Fundamental Islamic Human Right|author=Benaouda Bensaid|journal=[[Journal of Religion and Health]]|year=2019}}</ref>{{rp|q=Islamic law considers breastfeeding as one of the child’s most fundamental rights.}} Muslim jurists have given extensive treatment to this topic, for example [[Al-Mawardi]] (d. 1058) wrote an entire treatise ''Kitab al-rada'' on the topic of breastfeeding.<ref name=FundamentalRight/> This includes the specifics related to the right of being breastfed, as well as implications of breastfeeding on prohibiting marriage between individuals related by [[milk kinship]].

===Right to breastfeeding ===
The right to be breastfed is considered one of the most important rights of a child in Islamic law.<ref name=FundamentalRight/> If the mother is unable to breastfeed the child, then the father must pay  wet nurse to do so.<ref name=ref2>{{cite book|title=The Islamic Law of Personal Status|author=Jamal Nasir|page=172|year=1990}}</ref> If the parents of the child are divorced, the father must compensate his former wife with payments during breastfeeding.<ref name=ref1>{{cite book|title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition|editor=Vincent J. Cornell|publisher=Praeger|year=2007|volume=1|page=86}}</ref> The [[Jafari school of thought|Jafari]]s further opine that a mother has the right to compensation for breastfeeding even if the parents are married.<ref name=ref2/> However, the Sunni schools of thought disagree, arguing the father is not obligated to pay the mother if the two are divorced;<ref name=ref2/> the wife already has the right to maintenance (food and clothing) under Islamic law.<ref name=duty/>

Some opinions hold that a mother has the right to breastfeed her children, but can choose not to if she wishes.<ref name=duty/> This is an extension of the general principle, in Islamic law, that a mother has the right to raise her children, but she may renounce this right as it is not her duty.<ref name=duty>{{cite book|title=Muslim Women in Law and Society|author=Ronak Husni, Daniel L. Newman|date=2007|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=59}}</ref>

=== Milk kinship for infants ===
The Qur'an regards breastfeeding to establish [[milk kinship]] which has implications for marriage.

[[Islamic jurisprudence]] extensively discusses the precise delineation of which relationships are [[Harām|subject to prohibition]] once the milk relationship is established. Shi'ite Islam also prohibits marriage to the consanguineous kin of a milk-parent as per the Qur'an. In Shi'ite societies, the wet nurse was always from a subordinate group, so that marriage to her kin would not have been likely. Texts mentioned that [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], founder of the [[Hanbali]] [[Madhhab|school of jurisprudence]], also dealt with similar questions.<ref>{{harv|Giladi|1999|p=70}}</ref>

==== Other topics====
* ''laban al-fahl'', "milk of the sire", as under Islam the wet nurse's husband is considered the actual owner of her milk (it is his semen which caused the pregnancy that stimulated her lactation), which ties of consanguinity exist between his relations and the nursling?
* ''sifat al-radāʿ al-muharrim'', "quality of the milk", which ways of transmission create consanguinity?
* '' ʿadad al-radāʿ al-muharrim'', minimal number of sucklings necessary to establish fosterage;
* ''radāʿ al-kabīr'', suckling of a grown-up person, the maximum age at which the milk-relationship may be established;
* ''al-radāʿ min mayyita'', whether or not the absorption of milk from a dead woman creates the impediment.
*''ʿAdad al-radāʿ al-muharrim'', or minimal number of sucklings necessary to establish the milk-kinship, was the subject of extensive debate. The differences in number of sucklings amount to differences in [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|jurisprudence methodology]]. For the adherents of older [[Madhhab|schools of law]], such as the [[Maliki]]s and [[Hanafi]]s, one suckling was enough. The Hanafi scholars perceive the variations in the number of sucklings in [[hadith]] reports as recommendations for different people, but the minimum being one to establish kinship. Others, such as the [[Shafiʿi|Shāfi'ī]]s, maintained that the minimum number was five or ten, arguing that a [[Qur'ān]]ic verse had once stipulated this number until [[Naskh (tafsir)#Modes|its wording]] had been [[Naskh (tafsir)|abrogated]] from the [[mushaf|Qur'ānic text]], but the ruling was still in place. This is an example of a verse that is abrogated in wording, but its ruling remains. Imam Malik, however, believed its ruling had also been abrogated along with the wording.<ref>John Burton, ''The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', {{ISBN|0-7486-0108-2}}, pp. 156–158</ref><ref>Burton, ''[[Naskh (tafsir)|Naskh]]'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]</ref>

== Adult suckling ==
The following tradition (''[[Hadīth|hadith]]'') treats both this topic as well as that of '''''radāʿ al-kabīr''''', or '''suckling of an adult''' or '''breastfeeding an adult''' and number of sucklings:
{{quote|
She [Aisha] [[Isnad|reported]] that "in what was revealed of the Qur'ān, ten attested breast-feedings were mentioned as required to establish the marriage-ban. The ten were replaced by mention of five attested breast-feeds. The [[Muhammad|Prophet]] died and the five were still being recited in the Qur'ān.  No man ever called upon [[Aisha|'Ā'isha]] who had not completed the minimum number of five sucklings"&nbsp;...

[[Urwah ibn al-Zubayr]] reports that the Prophet commanded the wife of Abū Hudhayfa to feed her husband's [[mawla|mawlā]] [i.e. servant], Sālim, so that he could go on living with them [upon attaining manhood].<ref>John Burton, ''The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', pp. 157</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadith - The Book of Suckling - Sahih Muslim - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/17/38|access-date=2020-12-24|website=sunnah.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadith - The Book of Suckling - Sahih Muslim - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/17/31|access-date=2020-12-24|website=sunnah.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fatwa.islamonline.net/19839#|title=قصة سالم ورضاعه من السيدة سهلة|date=24 July 2021}}</ref>
}}

For most jurists ([[Ibn Hazm]] being one prominent exception), the bar to marriage was effective only if the nursling was an infant. Yet even these allowed that a new relationship resulted between the two; [[Ibn Rushd]], for example, ruled that the woman could now comport herself more freely in front of the nursed adult male, such as appearing before him [[hijab|unveiled]].<ref>{{harv|Giladi|1999|p=86}}</ref> The famous [[Muhaddith|traditionist]] [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] was forced to resign his position of ''[[mufti]]'' and leave the city of [[Bukhara]] after ruling that two nurslings who suckled from the same farm animal became milk-siblings.<ref>Giladi, ''Infants, Parents and Wet Nurses'', p. 69</ref>

In May 2007 Dr. Izzat Atiyya, lecturer at [[Cairo]]'s [[Al-Azhar University]], issued a ''[[fatwa]]'' that suggested that male and female colleagues could use breastfeeding to get around a religious ban on being alone together.  The ''fatwa'' said that if a woman fed a male colleague "directly from her breast" at least five times they would establish a family bond and thus be allowed to be alone together at work. "Breast feeding an adult puts an end to the problem of the private meeting, and does not ban marriage," he ruled. "A woman at work can take off the veil or reveal her hair in front of someone whom she breastfed."<ref name="bbc">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6681511.stm Breastfeeding fatwa causes stir]''. BBC. May 22, 2007.</ref> The ''fatwa'' sparked outrage and embarrassment, with critics deriding the author on [[Egyptian television]]. The university suspended the lecturer, who headed the university's ''[[hadith]]'' department.  The ''fatwa'' was widely publicized by Arabic-language [[satellite television]] channels and was discussed in the [[Parliament of Egypt|Egyptian parliament]].<ref name="reuters">''[http://uk.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUKL2173061220070521 Lecturer suspended after breastfeeding fatwa]''. Reuters. May 21, 2007.</ref>  After being threatened with disciplinary action by the university, Atiyya issued a retraction, saying the ''fatwa'' was "a bad interpretation of a particular case" during the time of Muhammad<ref name="bbc"/> and that it was based on the opinions of only a minority of scholars.<ref name="reuters"/>  Egypt's minister of religious affairs, [[Mahmoud Zaqzouq]], has called for future ''fatwas'' to "be compatible with logic and human nature".<ref name="bbc"/>

In 2010, a clerical adviser to the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] royal court and Ministry of Justice issued a [[fatwa]] suggesting that women should provide breast milk to their employed drivers thereby making them relatives.<ref name=Shaheen>{{Cite news|last=Shaheen|first=Abdul Rahman|title=Saudi women use fatwa in driving bid|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-women-use-fatwa-in-driving-bid-1.643431|access-date=19 September 2010|newspaper=gulfnews.com|date=20 June 2010}}</ref> The driver could then be trusted to be alone with the woman. The fatwa was ridiculed by women campaigners.

== See also ==

* [[Fiqh]]
** [[Islamic marital jurisprudence]]
** [[Mahram]]
* [[Islam and children]]
* [[Islamic feminism]]
* [[Women and Islam]]
* [[Milk kinship]]

== References ==

<references/>

==Further reading==

* {{cite book | author=John Burton | title=The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=1990 | isbn=0-7486-0108-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | author=John Burton and [[Joseph Schacht]] |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] | edition=CD-ROM v. 1.0 | year=1999 | article=Radā}}
* {{cite book | last=Giladi | first=Avner | title=Infants, Parents and Wet Nurses: Medieval Islamic Views on Breastfeeding and Their Social Implications | publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] | year=1999 | isbn=90-04-11223-5}}

<nowiki>[[Category:Islamic jurisprudence]]
[[Category:Fatwas]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies]]
[[Category:Breastfeeding]]
[[Category:Kinship and descent]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Wet nursing]]</nowiki>