Quelltext der Seite Benutzer:Shi Annan/Xu (state)

{{Importartikel}}
Der '''Staat Xu''' ({{zh|c=徐國|s=徐国|p=Xú Guó}}; auch: '''Xu Rong''' - 徐戎, '''Xu Yi''' - 徐夷) war ein Vassallenstaat der [[Zhou dynasty]] and [[Spring and Autumn period]] ruled by descendants of the Yíng family. Xu was a [[Dongyi]] state also known as '''Xurong''' ({{zh|c=徐戎}}), '''Xuyi''' ({{zh|c=徐夷}}) or '''Xufang''' ({{zh|c=徐方}}), all meaning either "Xu barbarians" or "Xu Proper".  Xu was one of the largest and most powerful non-[[Han Chinese|Han]] states in eastern China. It led the Huaiyi Confederation of Dongyi tribes.  From the time of the [[Xia dynasty]] until the [[Zhou dynasty]] the state spread throughout the middle and lower reaches of the [[Huai River]].  Xu submitted to the Zhou dynasty during the reign of [[King Mu of Zhou]], and was gradually assimilated into the Han Chinese nation and culture. It gradually lost power and various smaller states branched off, such as the [[Zhongli (state)|Zhongli (钟离)]] State.  At that time the center of the state lay in the Xizhou ({{zh|c=泗州}}) region that today forms part of [[Anhui Province]].  The State of Xu ceased to exist in 512 BC following attacks by the states of [[Wu (state)|Wu]] and [[Chu (state)|State of Chu]].
{{hatnote|Not to be confused with the state of Xǔ'' (許國) ''at the site of the present city of [[Xuchang]] or the state of Xyu{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=17}} just above the Lower [[Huai River]].}}
<!--{{aut|徐國/徐国}}|conventional_long_name = State of Xu
|common_name =Xu
|continent = Asia
|region    = East Asia
|country   = China
|era       = [[Western Zhou]] period<br/>[[Spring and Autumn period]]
|status    =
|government_type = [[Monarchy]]{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=323-325}}
|year_start  = Unknown
|year_end    = 512 BC
|p1 = Dapeng (state)
|s1 = Wu (state)
|s2 = Chu (state)
|s3 =
|image_map    = Map of Xu (8th century BC).png
|image_map_caption  = Xu at its greatest extent in the mid 8th century BC.<br/>1) dark red: Xu heartland; 2) red: Xu-led Huaiyi confederation; 3) pink: Xu allies or under Xu influence.
|capital          = Xizhou<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.9&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> / [[Pizhou]]{{sfnp|Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and Bengbu Museum|2015|p=84}}{{sfnp|Walker|1953|p=23}}
|common_languages = [[Old Chinese]] <small>(''[[lingua franca]]'')</small>{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=42}}<br/>Local languages{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|pp=41-44}}
|religion         = [[Chinese folk religion]] 
|leader1      = Yan of Xu
|leader2      = Yichu of Xu<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - VI. Sixth year" />
|leader3      = Zhangyu of Xu
|year_leader1 = c. 944 BC
|year_leader2 = c. 535 BC
|year_leader3 = ?–512 BC
|title_leader = [[Chinese nobility#Peer ranks of the Zhou dynasty|zǐ]] (子){{sfnp|Li|2008|p=121}}{{efn|name=fn1|While the title "zǐ" is commonly translated as "viscount" and was used by the Zhou states of the [[Spring and Autumn period]] to refer to "inferior" barbarian rulers, it originated as [[Western Zhou]] title for foreign rulers who saw themselves as independent kings. As result, when many Dongyi, Huaiyi and Man rulers adopted the "zǐ" title, they took it as synonymous with "king".{{sfnp|Li|2008|pp=116, 119-122}}}}
|event_start =
|event_end   = Conquered by [[Wu (state)|Wu]]
|event1      = [[Rebellion of the Three Guards]]
|date_event1 = c. 1042–1039 BC
|event2      = Zhou–Huaiyi War 
|date_event2 = c. 944–943 BC
|event3      = War of Ehou the Border Protector 
|date_event3 = c. 850 BC
|event4      = [[Battle of Loulin]]
|date_event4 = 644 BC-->

The '''State of Xu''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|徐國}}|s={{linktext|徐|国}}||p=Xú Guó}}) (also called '''Xu Rong''' (徐戎) or '''Xu Yi''' (徐夷){{efn|Literally "Xu barbarians", "Xu foreigners" or "Xu belligerents"}} by its enemies){{sfnp|Bergeton|2006|pp=12, 13}}<ref name="Yi">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/yi.html |title=Chinese History - Yi 夷 |work=Ulrich Theobald|accessdate=29 January 2016}}</ref> was an independent Huaiyi [[State (Ancient China)|state]] of the [[Bronze Age#China|Chinese Bronze Age]]{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|p=324}} that was ruled by the Ying family (嬴)<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year." />{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=31}} and controlled much of the [[Huai River]] valley for at least two centuries.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=323-325}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=103-105}} With its capital at Xizhou<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.9&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> and its ritual center at [[Pizhou]],{{sfnp|Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and Bengbu Museum|2015|p=84}}{{sfnp|Walker|1953|p=23}} Xu's heartland was northern [[Anhui]], northwestern [[Jiangsu]], and the Lower Huai River valley.

An ancient but originally minor state that already existed during the late [[Shang dynasty]], Xu was subjugated by the [[Western Zhou|Western]] [[Zhou dynasty]] around 1039 BC, and was gradually [[sinification|sinified]] from then on. It eventually regained its independence and formed a [[confederation]] of 36 states that became powerful enough to challenge the Zhou empire for supremacy over the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plain]]. Able to consolidate its rule over a territory that streched from [[Hubei]] in the south, through eastern [[Henan]], northern Anhui and Jiangsu, as far north as southern [[Shandong]],{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|p=324}} Xu's confederation remained a major power until the early [[Spring and Autumn period]].{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=135-137}}{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}} It reached its apogee in the mid 8th century BC, expanding its influence as far as [[Zhejiang]] in the south.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}} By that time, however, Xu's confederation began to break up as result of internal unrest. As its power waned, Xu was increasingly threatened by neighboring states, losing control over the Huai River to [[Chu (state)|Chu]]. Reduced to its heartland, Xu was eventually conquered by [[Wu (state)|Wu]] in 512 BC.{{sfnp|Deng|2008|p=33}}

== Geschichte ==
=== Ursprung und Herrschaft der Zhou ===
[[File:Yugong Nine Provinces Map 禹贡九州图.svg|thumb|left|Xu was reported by later chronicles to have covered a large area between the [[Huai River|Huai]] and [[Yellow River]] during the legendary [[Xia dynasty]].]]

According to the ''[[Rongcheng Shi]]'' [[bamboo slips]] from the [[Warring States period]], the ''[[Yu Gong]]'' from the [[Han dynasty]] and various other sources, [[Yu the Great]] devided the world into the [[Nine Provinces (China)|Nine Provinces]] in prehistoric times, one of them [[Xu Province|Xu]].<ref>{{zh icon}} [http://www.jianbo.org/Wssf/2003/yanchanggui01.htm 上博简《容成氏》九州柬释]</ref><ref>{{zh icon}} [http://www.jianbo.org/Wssf/2003/zhuyuanqing03.htm 禹画九州论]</ref>{{sfnp|Wu|1990|p=41}} The ''[[Yuanhe Xingzuan]]'', a [[Tang dynasty]] compilation of information on the origins of [[Chinese surname]]s, as well as the ''[[Tongzhi (book)|Tongzhi]]'', a Southern [[Song dynasty]] historical book, also state that Yu enfeoffed [[Ruomu]], grandson of the [[Chinese mythology|mythological]] [[Emperor of China|emperor]] [[Zhuanxu]], as lord of Xu around 2100 BC. In turn the [[Xu (surname)|Xu]] peoples were supposed to be Ruomu's descendants. Furthermore, it was claimed this Xu state or province had originally occupied the entire area between the Huai and [[Yellow River]].{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=7}} No contemporary evidence exists to verify this information and the oldest literary sources available, the [[oracle bone]]s of the Shang dynasty, do not mention such an empire. As result, the stories of Xu's foundation remain legendary.

Nevertheless, archaeological excavations have proven that the area around modern-day [[Xuzhou]], including the later heartland of Xu, was a major trading hub and cultural centre for the [[Yangshao culture|Yangshao]], [[Dawenkou culture|Dawenkou]] and [[Longshan culture]]s since the 3rd millennium BC.{{sfnp|Wu|1990|pp=41-44}} Oracle bones and later historical records both indicate that the Xuzhou area was occupied by the indigenous [[Dapeng (state)|Dapeng kingdom]] since the middle Shang dynasty. A powerful polity, Dapeng was eventually destroyed by the Shang under [[King Zhou of Shang|King Di Xin]].{{sfnp|Wu|1990|p=44}} In turn, Xu's existence is first reliably reported by the ''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]'' for 1042 BC, only a few decades after Dapeng's fall.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=307}} It remains unknown if these two polities were related in any way. 

At the time of its first recorded appearance, Xu was already a powerful [[Hua–Yi distinction|Yi]] state that was probably located in southeastern Shandong or northwestern Jiangsu.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=152, 153}} Besides this state, a number of small Xu enclaves existed in western Shandong.{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=7}}<ref name="BOOK I. DUKE YIN. - II. Second year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.7&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title= BOOK I. DUKE YIN. - II. Second year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> Like many local polities, Xu participated in the [[Rebellion of the Three Guards]] against the [[Duke of Zhou]], although it had no known direct relation to the two competing parties. Ralph D. Sawyer speculates that Xu joined the rebels because it did not wanted to alienate its neighboring states that had co-founded the rebel alliance.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|p=148}} The rebels eventually lost the war, and as result the Huai River valley was invaded and subjugated by the Zhou royal army in 1039 BC.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=306, 307}} To what extent Xu was also defeated during that campaign remains unclear; reports in the ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' and the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' make it likely that Xu forces continued to resist the implementation of Zhou power in southeastern Shandong. After the foundation of [[Lu (state)|Lu]], Xu and other Huaiyi statelets reportedly attacked the new Zhou state until [[Bo Qin]] defeated them.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=180, 181}} Afterwards, the Xu state appears to have been largely pacified and became a vassal of the Zhou dynasty. In this position, it was strongly influenced by the Zhou culture and also served as link to the dynasty's southernmost ally, [[Wu (state)|Wu]].{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=324}} Despite that, Xu remained somewhat defiant, and moved its core area further south into northern Anhui in order to escape the constant pressure from the Zhou dynasty in the north.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=152, 153}}{{sfnp|So|1994|pp=200}} The Xu enclaves in western Shandong even continued to openly resist, but most of them were destroyed by Lu and [[Song (state)|Song]] over time.{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=7}}

=== Aufstieg ===
After its subjugation, the state of Xu was forced to remain a vassal of the Zhou dynasty for almost one hundred years.{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=324}} The turning point came in the mid 10th century BC: Around 957 BC, the Zhou dynasty lost a disastrous [[Zhou–Chu War|war]] against [[Chu (state)|Chu]]. This defeat appears to have thrown the dynasty into chaos.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=93-95}} Based on archaeological findings, [[Edward L. Shaughnessy]] even speculates that the Zhou dynasty was so weakened that it largely retreated to its capital area, leaving most of its empire to fend for itself.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=323-325}} Building upon this theory, Manfred Frühauf believes that the Huaiyi, among them Xu, regained their independence as consequence of this general Zhou retreat.{{sfnp|Frühauf|2008|p=21}} Regardless of whether this was the case, by 944 BC, Xu and the Huaiyi had definitely regained their independence, as Lord Yan of Xu managed to unite thirty-six Dongyi and Huaiyi states under his leadership, declared himself king and proceeded to invade the Zhou empire.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|p=199}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|p=324}} The reasons for this invasion are unknown, but Frühauf speculates that it was a preventive strike to prevent the Zhou from restoring their domination over the Huaiyi,{{sfnp|Frühauf|2008|p=21}} while Sawyer considers it possible that the Xu either wanted to plunder the Zhou royal domain or aimed to supplant the Zhou rule and establish their own dynasty.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|p=200}} The course and scale of the invasion are equally controversial, based on different interpretations of bronze inscriptions and historical texts. It is even disputed if there was just one or two invasions. Generally agreed, however, is the result of the attacks: Even though the Zhou forces had eventually succeeded in driving the invaders back, they could not subjugate the Huaiyi again and were forced to acknowledge their independence in a peace treaty.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=199-203}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=323-325}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=96, 97}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1991|pp=250-254}} If records in the ''[[Book of the Later Han]]'', probably based upon early texts of the ''Bamboo Annals'', are to believed, Xu was particularly strengthened by the war. Recognizing that he could not defeat the Huaiyi, [[King Mu of Zhou]] recognized King Yan of Xu as overlord over a large confederation that covered most of the Huai River valley and regions south of it. As result, Xu became the new major power of the east and a serious political rival to the Zhou dynasty.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=96, 97}}{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=323-325}} The ''Zuo Zhuan'' suggests that this confederation also included the remaining Xu enclaves in western Shandong.<ref name="BOOK I. DUKE YIN. - II. Second year." /> In the course of its political ascent, Xu's cultural influence began to spread as far as the [[Yangtze]] delta region.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}}

=== Apogee ===
Xu maintained its dominance over the southeast after King Mu's death, while the armistice proved inadequate to ensure peace. The military contest between the Huaiyi and Zhou kingdom never really stopped, and even though the latter increasingly suffered from internal disorder and even chaos, it remained a formidable adversary for Xu's confederation. [[King Li of Zhou]] (857-842/28){{efn|Li effectively ruled only until 842 BC, when he was forced into exile; nevertheless, he remained official king until 828 BC.{{sfnp|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=343-345}}}} led several campaigns against the states of the Huai River, such as Jiao and Yu. In turn, the Huaiyi confederation under Xu began a massive counter offensive in 850 BC, aiming to conquer the [[North China Plain]] and to destroy the Zhou rule over the East. Allied with Ehou, rebellious ruler of [[E (state)|E]], and the Dongyi states, the Huaiyi brought the Zhou dynasty to the brink of destruction. Their forces even reached the [[Luo River (Henan)|Luo]] and [[Yi River (Henan)|Yi River]] valleys, threatening{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=103-105}} or even plundering<ref name="Yi" /> the dynasty's [[Crown land|royal domain]]. Eventually, however, the anti-Zhou alliance collapsed after the destruction of E by Zhou loyalists, and Xu was driven back.{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=103-105}}

War was renewed under [[King Xuan of Zhou]], who aimed to restabilize and restore the Zhou kingdom. Enlisting the military aid of several loyalist states of Shandong, he launched a massive campaign against the Xu-led Huaiyi coalition in 822 BC, eventually claiming to have won a great victory.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=229, 230}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=135-138}} The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' even boasted:
<blockquote><poem>
The region of Hsü [Xu] is shaken without interruption, 
it trembles in terror, the region of Hsü
as before the rolling and the bursts of thunder,
the region of Hsü trembles for terror!{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=58}}
</poem></blockquote>
Notwithstanding these claims, Xuan's expedition probably did not result in a total victory, as Xu does not appear to have been severely weakened during this period. It is more likely that the war ended with a minor Zhou victory or a peace treaty, with tributes sent by the Huaiyi to King Xuan for his remaining reign.{{sfnp|Sawyer|2013|pp=152, 153}}{{sfnp|Li|2006|pp=135-138}} According to the ''[[Yu Gong]]'', Xu sent [[pheasant]] [[Plume (feather)|plumes]] and sounding stones as regular tributes.{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|pp=62, 63}}

Despite Xuan's restoration attempts, the Zhou dynasty's royal power largely collapsed in 771 BC, ushering into the Spring and Autumn period. Initially, Xu not only retained its power during this new era of warfare and chaos, but probably further expanded into the south. Xu bronzes from the early Spring and Autumn period were found in southern Jiangsu and northern [[Zhejiang]], indicating the state's influence in or possibly even control over these regions.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}}{{sfnp|von Falkenhausen|1999|p=538}} Around this time, however, Xu also began to suffer from serious internal unrest, resulting in the gradual disintegration of its confederation. Several polities seceded: The Xu enclaves of western Shandong aligned themselves with the state of [[Lu (state)|Lu]] in 720 BC,<ref name="BOOK I. DUKE YIN. - II. Second year." /> the Shu peoples formed independent states,{{efn|The Shu states (舒) were a group of minor city-states belonging to a single Xu-related tribal group<ref name="Yi" /> that were located between central<ref name="BOOK V. DUKE XI. - III. Third year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title= BOOK V. DUKE XI. - III. Third year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> and southwestern Anhui.{{sfnp|Walker|1953|p=23}} These states should not be confused with [[Shu (state)|Shu]] of [[Sichuan]].}}{{sfnp|Miller|2015|p=152}} the state of [[Zhoulai]] occupied the middle Huai River valley,{{sfnp|Zhang|2012|pp=272, 273}}<ref name="Book 10 - Duke Zhao. Thirteenth year ">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=Book 10 - Duke Zhao. Thirteenth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> and even a part of ruling Ying family broke off to form their own state, Zhongli.{{sfnp|Kan ''et al.''|2009|p=37}}{{sfnp|Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and Bengbu Museum|2015|p=82}} Nevertheless, all of these groups remained under Xu's influence to varying degrees. The Xu rulers had also adopted the "[[Chinese nobility#Peer ranks of the Zhou dynasty|zǐ]]" title (子){{efn|name=fn1}} for themselves by this time, thereby integrating themselves into the recognized Zhou system. While seen as inferior barbarian title by Zhou states, the Xu rulers took "zǐ" as synonymous with "king".{{sfnp|Li|2008|pp=116, 119-122}}<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year." />

=== Konflikt mit den Nördlichen Dynastien ===
Despite its confederation's end, the Xu kingdom still held considerable power, so that the dukes Yin and [[Duke Huan of Lu|Huan]] of Lu tried to remain "on good terms with [the Xu peoples]". Their successor, Duke Zhuang of Lu, on the other side, considered the remaining Xu tribes of Shandong a threat and started a war to eliminate them. By that time, the only remaining northern Xu enclave of any significance was centered at [[Cao County|Caozhou]], holding the local marshes from where the [[Chi River (Hanshui)|Chi River]] originated.<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year." />{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|pp=7, 8}} According to the ''Zuo Zhuan'', the continued raiding activities of the Caozhou-Xu were responsible for the war.<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year." />{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=185}} Duke Zhuang was able to gain the military assistance of [[Song (state)|Song]], [[Zheng (state)|Zheng]], and, most importantly, the powerful state of [[Qi (state)|Qi]]. On the other side, the Xu of Shandong allied with the Xu kingdom. Qi first attacked the Xu of Shandong in 674 BC, but failed to subdue them. In 668, the Qi-led coalition launched not only another assault on Caozhou, but also invaded Xu's territory in the Huai River valley. While the latter state remained undefeated, the Caozhou-Xu were destroyed,<ref name="BOOK III. DUKE ZHUANG. - XXVI. Twenty-sixth year." /> and with them, the last remnants of Xu rule in Shandong.{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|pp=7, 8}}

=== Krieg mit Chu und Niedergang ===
Beginning in 655 BC, the state of Chu began to expand into the Huai River valley,{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=16}} causing several local Huaiyi polities such as the Shu states to ally with it in order to profit from its military assistance. In response to this aggressive expansion into its heartland, the Xu kingdom began to cooperate with Chu's northern enemies, and occupied one of the now-hostile Shu states in 656 BC.<ref name="BOOK V. DUKE XI. - III. Third year." />{{sfnp|Miller|2015|p=87}} Chu retaliated in 645 BC, and launched an invasion of Xu.{{sfnp|Maspero|1978|p=188}} [[Duke Huan of Qi]], hegemon of China at that time, organised a alliance of Qi, Lu, Song, [[Chen (state)|Chen]], [[Wey (state)|Wey]], [[Zheng (state)|Zheng]], [[Cao (state)|Cao]], and Xǔ to aid Xu. They sent a expedition to relieve the small kingdom, but the anti-Chu alliance was decisively defeated during the [[Battle of Loulin]].<ref name="BOOK V. DUKE XI. - XV. Fifteenth year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title= BOOK V. DUKE XI. - XV. Fifteenth year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> While it was not destroyed and continued to fight for its independence, Xu was severely weakened, marking the beginning of its final decline.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}}{{sfnp|Miller|2015|pp=99-101}}

With Xu's decline, other states of the Huai River began to grow in power. In its direct vicinity, the state of Zhongli grew into "one of the most important regional states of the [river's] middle reaches".{{sfnp|Kan ''et al.''|2009|p=37}} Sometime between 644 and 600 BC, its ruler, Lord Bai, defeated Xu in battle.{{sfnp|Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and Bengbu Museum|2015|pp=75, 83, 85}} In 643 BC, Xu and its ally Qi invaded Yingshi in [[Lu'an]], a vassal state of Chu. According to Zuo Qiuming, "this expedition was undertaken by Qi in the interest of Xu, to avenge (...) the defeat of Xu by Chu at Loulin".<ref name="BOOK V. DUKE XI. - XVII. Seventeenth year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title= BOOK V. DUKE XI. - XVII. Seventeenth year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref>  After 622 BC, Chu forced the remaining states along the middle Huai River into vassalage, destroying any of them that continued open resistance. It also concluded a pact with Wu and [[Yue (state)|Yue]], "which kept them from wooing the Shu states for a quarter century". As result, Chu became the unchallenged ruler of most of the Huai River valley,{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=16}} so that Xu increasingly fell under Chu's influence as well. Despite this, the extremely weakened kingdom continued to conspire with other states against Chu.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XVI. Sixteenth year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XVI. Sixteenth year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> In 620 BC, Xu undertook a campaign against [[Ju (state)|Ju]] in Shandong.{{sfnp|Miller|2015|p=129}}<ref name="BOOK VI. DUKE WEN. - VII. Seventh year.">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.12&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK VI. DUKE WEN. - VII. Seventh year. |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref>

Chu's dominance over the Huai River valley was broken in 584 BC, when Wu launched a large-scale western offensive,{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=16}} during which Xu was also attacked by Wu forces.<ref name="BOOK VIII. DUKE CHENG. - VII. Seventh year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.14&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK VIII. DUKE CHENG. - VII. Seventh year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=5 February 2016}}</ref> From then on, Wu and Chu constantly fought each other for supremacy over the Huai River valley,{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=16}} while nearly nothing is recorded of Xu for this period.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XVI. Sixteenth year." />

Since 542 BC, Xu became inclined to side against Chu with Wu in order to regain its full independence,<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XVI. Sixteenth year." /> with King Yichu<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - VI. Sixth year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - VI. Sixth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> marrying a Wu princess. This new alliance resulted in grave consequences for Xu in 539 BC. In that year, [[King Ling of Chu]] called for meeting of the states at the former capital of [[Shen (state)|Shen]], wanting them to accept him as new hegemon of China. Although hostile to Chu, Xu's ruler was obliged to be present at the meeting as he feared a possible retaliation. At Shen, however, Chu's ruler had Yichu seized because of his close connections to Wu.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - IV. Fourth year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - IV. Fourth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> He then compelled Xu to participate in an invasion of Wu in 537 BC.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - V. Fifth Year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - V. Fifth Year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref>{{sfnp|Miller|2015|pp=220, 221}} One year later, King Yichu escaped and returned to his capital. King Ling of Chu, fearing that Xu would revolt, promptly invaded the small kingdom. Wu came to Xu's aid, however, and defeated Chu's army. Afterwards, Xu openly aligned itself with Wu.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - VI. Sixth year" />

In winter 530 BC, King Ling of Chu led another army to besiege and conquer Xu's capital in order to prepare an invasion of Wu.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - Twelfth year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - Twelfth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref>{{sfnp|Miller|2015|p=226}} The siege lasted until the next summer, when [[Zi'ao]] launched a coup at [[Ying (Chu)|Ying]] and took control of Chu's government. King Ling`s army then almost completely deserted him, while the remaining loyal troops broke off the siege of Xu and began to retreat to Chu, only to be overwhelmed and destroyed by an army of Wu at Yuzhang.<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XIII. Thirteenth year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XIII. Thirteenth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref>

In 526 BC, [[Duke Jing of Qi]] wanted to restore Qi's old hegemony, and launched an invasion of Xu. Instead of resisting, Xu's ruler simply submitted and paid tribute to the duke, so that the latter returned to Qi without any fighting. [[Zuo Qiuming]] believed this to be a sign of the small states' increasing weakness, as they no longer had a leader among them capable of resisting invaders who were "devoid of principle".<ref name="BOOK X. DUKE ZHAO. - XVI. Sixteenth year."/>

=== Fall und Erbe ===
Eventually, Xu became involved in a succession dispute of Wu in 515 BC, when it sheltered Prince Yanyu from his nephew, [[King Helü of Wu]].<ref name="BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXVII. Twenty-seventh year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXVII. Twenty-seventh year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> Three years later, Helü ordered Xu to hand the fugitive over,<ref name="BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXX. Thirtieth year">{{cite web |url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/chunqiu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=d2.16&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d2.16&doc.lang=bilingual |title=BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXX. Thirtieth year |work=[[Zuo Zhuan]] |author=[[Zuo Qiuming]] |language=Chinese, English| accessdate=26 January 2016}}</ref> but King Zhangyu of Xu sympathized with Yanyu and let him go.<ref>[[Records of the Grand Historian]]</ref> Yanyu then fled to the state of Chu, which agreed to help him. Enraged about the course of events, Helü invaded Xu.<ref name="BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXX. Thirtieth year" /> Aided by the famous military strategist [[Sun Tzu]],{{sfnp|Deng|2008|p=70}} Helü ordered his troops to raise "embankments on the hills so as to lay the [kingdom's] capital under water". Although Chu sent an army to relieve Xu, the situation in the besieged city became unbearable, so that Zhangyu went forth with his wife to personally surrender to King Helü. Hereby, Xu was extinguished.<ref name="BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXX. Thirtieth year" />

[[File:Xu Yaoyin Tang Ding.jpg|thumb|right|Bronze ''[[Ding (vessel)|ding]]'' cast by Yin, the ''yaoyin'' (official in charge of sacrifice) of Xu, who was exiled in the [[Yue (state)|Yue kingdom]], unearthed in [[Shaoxing]], 1982. Its 44-character inscription records Yin's ambition to restore the vanquished Xu kingdom.{{sfnp|Chen|2013|p=15}}]]

After Xu's fall, Zhangyu, his family and his most loyal officers were allowed to go into exile to Chu. On the way, they met Chu's army and were escorted to the city of Yi, where Zhangyu took residence.<ref name="BOOK X. Duke Zhao - XXX. Thirtieth year" /> Despite its end, Xu continued to "exert a major influence in the region",{{sfnp|Milburn|2015|p=270}} especially since exiles from the fallen state settled in a large area. Bronze artifacts inscribed by Xu donors were found at sites associated with both [[Yue (state)|Yue]] and Wu, but some were even found at [[Jing'an County|Jing'an]] in northwestern [[Jiangxi]], an area commonly considered a "virtual no-man's land inhabitated by unassimilated populations".<ref>http://jiangxi.jxnews.com.cn/system/2009/03/22/011053538.shtml 靖安——古徐国的最后消失地？</ref>{{sfnp|von Falkenhausen|1999|p=538}}

Those found at Wu sites and dated to the time after Xu's destruction were probably war booty, trading goods or "tokens of political or marriage alliance".{{sfnp|von Falkenhausen|1999|p=538}} The Xu bronzes from [[Shaoxing]] in the Yue kingdom, however, can reliably identified with exiles. Its donor, Yin, had been the ''yaoyin'' (official in charge of sacrifice) of Xu, and stated on one ''[[Ding (vessel)|ding]]'' his ambitions to restore his home state.{{sfnp|Chen|2013|p=15}} An inscription on a halberd of a king of Yue is even interpreted by some scholars as "to aid the Xu state", in which case the Yue government itself desired the restoration of Xu. This interpretation is, however, strongly disputed, with many scholars such as Peng Yushang reading the words as the name of the king.{{sfnp|Peng|2012|p=86}}

== Kultur ==
While contemporary and later written records generally considered the people of Xu to be part of the "Huaiyi" or "barbarians of the Huai River", it remains unclear if the Huaiyi were defined on their political opposition to the Zhou dynasty or a shared culture and common ethnicity. Neverthless, several sinologists, such as Donald B. Wagner, Constance A. Cook, and Barry B. Blakeley consider it likely that the Huaiyi were a specific people, distinct from other groups such as the Dongyi of Shandong and the Nanyi of the middle Yangtze.{{sfnp|Wagner|1996|pp=98, 99}}{{sfnp|Cook; Major|1999|p=4}}  Archaeological excavations seem to corroborate this assumption, as they indicate that the Xu peoples had a distinct indigenious culture which had evolved from local [[Neolithic]] origins.{{sfnp|Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and Bengbu Museum|2015|p=82}} As part of the Huaiyi, the Xu peoples were part of a highly developed bronze culture. In fact, the Huaiyi appeared as users of bronze and copper who produced metal weapons, vessels and bells since they were first attested by Zhou sources in the eleventh century BC.{{sfnp|Wagner|1996|pp=99, 100, 106}}

Xu is also commonly associated with the larger Wu-Yue [[cultural area]], on which it exerted a great influence.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|p=70}}{{sfnp|Milburn|2015|p=270}} In this position it acted as a intermediary for the northern Zhou culture,{{sfnp|Li|2006|p=324}} but also conveyed its own distinct techniques and ideas to the Yangtze delta region.{{sfnp|Milburn|2015|p=270}}{{sfnp|von Falkenhausen|1999|p=538}}

As the people of Xu were not of Shang or Zhou origin, they probably spoke their own language, which might have been related to the largely unknown Yue languages to the south.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|pp=41-44}} Nevertheless, the Xu elites were well versed in [[Old Chinese]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the time, using it to inscribe their bronze vessels.{{sfnp|Chen|2013|p=15}} Besides Old Chinese script, the [[Bird-worm seal script|bird seal script]] was also used. This script was very popular in southeastern China and had evolved from the seal script of the Shang dynasty. Still not completely deciphered, it remains unclear if it was a full-fledged writing system or had a more symbolic purpose. Erica Fox Brindley speculates, however, that regardless of the script texts were only written in Old Chinese.{{sfnp|Fox Brindley|2015|pp=42, 43}}

== Xu in der Astronomie ==
Xu is represented with the star '''[[Theta Serpentis]]''' in asterism ''Left Wall'', [[Heavenly Market enclosure]] (see [[Chinese constellation]]).<ref>{{zh icon}} [http://aeea.nmns.edu.tw/2006/0606/ap060623.html AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy) 天文教育資訊網 2006 年 6 月 23 日]</ref>

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

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<pre>{{DEFAULTSORT:Xu (State)}}
[[Category:Ancient Chinese states]]
[[Category:Zhou dynasty]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC]]
[[Category:6th-century BC disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:History of Jiangsu]]
[[Category:Xuzhou]]
[[Category:History of Shandong]]
[[Category:History of Anhui]]
[[Category:Xu (state)]]
[[Category:History of Ancient China]]
</pre>
[[en:Xu (state)]]