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Vorlage:Globalize Vorlage:Transgender sidebar The participation of transgender or transsexual individuals in competitive sports is a controversial issue. Opposition to transgender or transsexual women competing in sporting events generally focuses on hormonal factors (such as higher testosterone levels among trans women) pre-transition, and physiological factors such as height and weight. Insisting that trans athletes compete against athletes of the same assigned sex at birth, sex verification testing, and access regulations have been used with the purported aim of ensuring fair competition.

History of transgender athletes in competition

Historically sport has been seen as a male domain.[1] The masculine perception of sport was first moderated with the rise of women's sports and further challenged with the gradual acceptance of gay sportsmen.[1] A third departure from this traditional view came from trans athletes, who did not fit into the culturally accepted binary gender norms of male and female.[1]

Renée Richards

An early high-profile transgender athlete was tennis player Renée Richards. Already a promising tennis player in the men's circuit, Richards underwent gender reassignment therapy in 1975 and started playing in women's tournaments a year later. Her discovery and the resulting media frenzy sparked protests.[2] After she accepted an invitation to a warm-up tournament for the US Open, the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) and the United States Tennis Association (USTA) withdrew their support and 25 of the 32 women withdrew.[3]

The USTA and WTA introduced the Barr body test, which identifies a person's sex chromosomes. Richards refused to take the test and was banned from the US Open.[2] She filed a lawsuit in 1977 claiming that her civil rights were violated, and challenging that policy, and the New York Supreme Court ruled in her favor. The judge agreed that the Barr body test as the sole determinant of sex was "grossly unfair" and ruled Richards legally female.[4] She competed in the 1977 US Open at the age of 43, lost in the first round and retired four years later.[2] At the time, the ruling in Richards's case did not lead to major changes outside of tennis.[4]

Olympics

In 2003, a committee convened by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical Commission drew up new guidelines for participation of athletes who had undergone gender reassignment. The report listed three conditions for participation. First, athletes must have undergone sex reassignment surgery, including changes in the external genitalia and gonadectomy. Second, athletes must show legal recognition of their gender. Third, athletes must have undergone hormone therapy for an appropriate time before participation, with two years being the suggested time.[5]

It was not until 2004 that the IOC allowed transgender athletes to participate in the Olympic Games.[6]

In 2015, the IOC modified these guidelines in recognition that legal recognition of gender could be difficult in countries where gender transition is not legal, and also that requiring surgery in otherwise healthy individuals "may be inconsistent with developing legislation and notions of human rights".[7][8] The new guidelines require only that trans woman athletes declare their gender and not change that assertion for four years, and demonstrate a testosterone level of less than 10 nanomoles/liter for at least one year prior to competition and throughout the period of eligibility. Athletes who transitioned from female to male were allowed to compete without restriction. These guidelines were in effect for the 2016 Rio Olympics, although no openly transgender athletes competed.[9]

Other

The first out transgender person to make a US National Team was Chris Mosier who in 2016 qualified for Team USA in duathlon.[9]

In 2017 Mack Beggs, a teenager from Texas, was required to wrestle against girls throughout the season of his transition from female to male up through the state championship, despite wanting to wrestle against boys. This was due to state sport regulations requiring athletes to compete alongside athletes of their birth gender. Some opponents say the testosterone prescribed as part of his transition gives him an unfair advantage and made it unsafe for the other wrestlers. (He finished the regular season at 52-0 and won the state championship.)[10]

In October 2018, Rachel McKinnon won a gold medal at the cycling Masters World Track Championship in Los Angeles. [11]

Testing

At the heart of this controversy are concerns that transgender women would outperform cisgender women in many sports, such as running, due to their possibly more masculine body structure and historically higher testosterone levels. The intense scrutiny of transgender athletes has focused on trans women because it is generally assumed that transitioning for transmasculine individuals would not confer a competitive advantage.[12]

Sports organizations have sought a test for sex verification to ensure fairness across all sports. This began in the 1940s with "femininity certificates" provided by a physician. In the 1960s, visual genital inspections were used to confirm gender, followed by chromosomal analysis to detect the presence of the SRY and DYZ1 genes, normally found on the Y chromosome.[13] These tests were all designed to ensure that athletes were only allowed to compete as their sex, but mostly resulted in the exclusion of intersex athletes.[14]

More recently,Vorlage:When testosterone levels have become the focus and, at the same time, new guidelines have been sought that would allow successfully-transitioned athletes to compete.[7] The increased visibility of trans women in professional sports has led to debates on the IOC policies.[15]

Testosterone and athletic ability

There is ongoing debate over the impact of biological sex differences in humans on sports abilities. People who oppose transgender women competing in women's sports say that they are given an unfair advantage over cisgender women due to higher testosterone levels and different muscle and fat distribution. Testosterone regulates many different functions in the body, including the maintenance of bone and muscle mass.[16] It is also argued that athletes who transition to a woman after puberty will have a greater muscle to fat ratio compared to female athletes.[17]

The debate on transgender women does not only pertain to elite sports, but also to school sports and sports scholarships.[18] There was controversy in Connecticut after high school competitions were won by a transgender student.[19][20] This resulted in a civil rights complaint being filed.[21]

Joanna Harper is a medical physicist at the Providence Portland Medical Center who advised the International Olympic Committee (IOC).[22] She argues that the use of estrogen supplements and testosterone blockers (or physical castration via sex reassignment) cause a decrease in muscle mass, and oxygen-carrying red blood cells and that this leads to a decrease in strength, speed, and endurance.[23] According to Joanna Harper, a competitive runner, scientist, and transgender woman, every athlete has advantages and disadvantages. The greater height that a transgender woman may have gained before transitioning may be an advantage on the basketball court but it is likely to be disadvantageous to a gymnast.[24] Eric Vilain, a professor of human genetics at UCLA and a consultant to the IOC medical commission, stated: "There is 10 to 12% difference between male and female athletic performance. We need to categorize with criteria that are relevant to performance. It is a very difficult situation with no easy solution."[25]

In secondary education

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United States

States vary widely on participation of transgender children in sports and which locker room those students should use. Advocates in favor of allowing transgender children to participate in sports based on their preferred gender point out the known benefits of participating in sports and the psychological well-being of the transgender children.[26] Opponents emphasize the same issues of an unfair advantage of larger size and strength in trans women, plus the safety of cisgender children, both in competition and in the locker room.[27]

United Kingdom

Nearly all UK nationwide sports organisations have set up new rules for integrating transgender people in competitive sports, for example British Rowing.[28] In 2018, transgender children in UK legally had severe difficulties to get legal recognition (a Gender Recognition Certificate).[29]

Australia

In July 2019, Sport Australia published guidelines on making sport more inclusive for transgender and gender-diverse people.[30]

Canada

Provincial governing bodies for high school sports have independent policies on the participation of transgender or non-binary athletes on sex-segregated teams. Organizations such as the Alberta Schools' Athletic Association, the Manitoba High Schools Athletics Association and BC School Sports each have policies that allow the participation of transgender student-athletes in accordance with their gender identity.[31][32][33]

Transgender or non-binary student-athletes looking to compete in a team consistent with their gender identity in British Columbia must submit an application to the BC School Sports Executive Director, and are required to have a written statement from both the student-athlete and the principal of their high school confirming their gender identity.[33]

Post-secondary education

United States

In August of 2011, the National Collegiate Athletic Association Office of Inclusion published the NCAA Inclusion of Transgender Student-Athletes resource outlining the best practices and policies for the inclusion for transgender student-athletes.[34]

The policy permits transgender athletes who are not using hormone therapy to continue to participate on the team that corresponds to their gender assigned at birth. A female-to-male (FTM) trans student-athlete may participate on either a men’s or women’s team, but a male-to-female (MTF) transgender student-athlete is not permitted to compete on a women’s team.[34]

The NCAA allows a trans male student-athlete to compete on a men’s team while being treated with testosterone, but they may no longer compete on a women’s team. A trans female student-athlete is able to compete on a women’s team after one year of testosterone suppression treatment. Athletes receiving doses of testosterone as a part of their transition must apply for a medical exemption through the league, as testosterone is considered a banned substance in the NCAA. Ongoing monitoring of their treatment and written documentation is required for student-athletes undergoing testosterone suppression.[34]

Canada

In September 2018, U Sports, the governing body of intercollegiate and varsity athletics in Canada, released a policy addressing eligibility and best practices for the inclusion of transgender student-athletes at their member institutions.[35] Under this new policy, U Sports student-athletes are able to compete according to their gender identity or sex assigned at birth provided they meet requirements of the Canadian Anti-Doping Program. Transgender student-athletes, like other U Sports athletes, are given 5 years of eligibility to compete and may only represent one gender of sports team per school year.[35]

Notable trans athletes

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Trans men

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Trans women

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See also

References

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Further reading

AcknowledgedVorlage:By whom law and regulation research papers regarding policies around transgender athletes in competition:

*

  1. ↑ a b c Eric Anderson, Ann Travers: Introduction. In: Transgender Athletes in Competitive Sport (en). Routledge, 25. Mai 2017, ISBN 9781315304250.
  2. ↑ a b c Lindsay Pieper: Advantage Renee?. In: Eric Anderson (Hrsg.): Transgender Athletes in Competitive Sport (en). Routledge, 25. Mai 2017, ISBN 9781315304250.
  3. ↑ Susan Birrell, Cheryl L. Cole: Double Fault: Renee Richards and the Construction and Naturalization of Difference. In: Sociology of Sport Journal. 7, Nr. 1, Dezember, S. 1–21. doi:10.1123/ssj.7.1.1.
  4. ↑ a b Lindsay Parks Pieper: Gender Regulation: Renée Richards Revisited. In: The International Journal of the History of Sport. 29, Nr. 5, 1. April 2012, ISSN 0952-3367, S. 675–690. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.675202.
  5. ↑ Statement of the Stockhold consensus on sex reassignment in sports. In: Pdga.com . 2003. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  6. ↑ Heather Sykes: Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport. In: Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal. 15, Nr. 1, Dezember, S. 3–13.
  7. ↑ a b IOC consensus meeting on sex reassignment and hyperandrogenism. In: stillmed.olympic.org . November 2014. Abgerufen im August 24, 2016.
  8. ↑ Cyd Zeigler: Exclusive: Read the Olympics' new transgender guidelines that will not mandate surgery. In: www.outsports.com . Jan 21, 2016. Abgerufen im August 24, 2016.
  9. ↑ a b Lauren Steele: Chris Mosier First Trans Team USA Member - Rolling Stone. In: Rollingstone.com . August 2, 2016. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  10. ↑ Reuters: Transgender teenage wrestler Mack Beggs wins Texas girls title (en-GB). In: The Guardian, 26. Februar 2017. Abgerufen am 13. Januar 2018. 
  11. ↑ McKinnon is First Transgender Woman to Win World Title (en-GB). In: Cyclingnews.com, 16. Oktober 2018. Abgerufen am 4. November 2018. 
  12. ↑ Marelise van der Merwe: Sport and gender: Can of worms, open. In: Dailymaverick.co.za . August 22, 2016. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  13. ↑ J C Reeser: Gender identity and sport: is the playing field level?. In: BJSM. 39, Nr. 10, October 2005.
  14. ↑ Ruth Padawer: The Humiliating Practice of Sex-Testing Female Athletes. In: The New York Times . June 28, 2016. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  15. ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2019/jul/22/current-impasse-transgender-athletes
  16. ↑ Bradley Anawalt, MD, Susan Kirk, MD, Dorothy Shulman, MD: Endocrine Glands and Types of Hormones. In: Hormone Health Network . Archiviert vom Original am 18. Mai 2015. Abgerufen im 11 May 2015.
  17. ↑ Heather Sykes: Transgender and Transsexual Policies in Sport. In: Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal. 15, Nr. 1, Dezember, S. 3–13. Abgerufen im August 24, 2016.Vorlage:Paywall
  18. ↑ https://www.outsports.com/2018/6/14/17458696/trans-athlete-connecticut-high-school-ban-petition
  19. ↑ https://abc7chicago.com/sports/transgender-track-star-teens-cause-controversy-in-connecticut/3637507/
  20. ↑ https://abcnews.go.com/US/transgender-teens-outrun-track-field-competitors-critics-close/story?id=55856294
  21. ↑ https://www.ctpost.com/news/article/Female-athletes-file-complaint-over-transgender-14015429.php
  22. ↑ Joanna Harper, Author at Sports Integrity Initiative. In: sportsintegrityinitiative.com . 18. Juni 2018. Abgerufen am 22. Juli 2019.
  23. ↑ Joanna Harper: Do transgender athletes have an edge? I sure don't.. In: The Washington Post . April 1, 2015. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  24. ↑ Matilda Edwards: Testing, hormones, hatred: What it's like to compete as a transgender athlete - Hack - triple j. Abc.net. July 28, 2016. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  25. ↑ Tim Layden: Caster Semenya controversy 2016 Rio Olympics. In: Sports Illustrated . August 11, 2016. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  26. ↑ Katy Steinmetz: The Case for Allowing Transgender Athletes in Youth Sports. In: Time . July 16, 2015. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  27. ↑ Sandhya Somashkhar: A question for schools: Which sports teams should transgender students play on?. In: The Washington Post . October 2, 2014. Abgerufen im August 25, 2016.
  28. ↑ Transgender & Transsexual Policy February 2016. In: British Rowing . Abgerufen am 22. Juli 2019.
  29. ↑ Legal recognition for transgender children. In: gires.org . Abgerufen am 22. Juli 2019.
  30. ↑ Australia seeks to bring more transgender people to sports. In: Agence France-Presse . 13. Juni 2019. Abgerufen am 22. Juli 2019.
  31. ↑ Official Handbook - Alberta Schools' Athletic Association (2017-2018). In: Alberta Schools' Athletic Association .
  32. ↑ Transgender Policy. In: Manitoba High School Athletic Association . Abgerufen am 25. September 2019.
  33. ↑ a b BC School Sports Handbook (2019-2020). In: BC School Sports Handbook .
  34. ↑ a b c NCAA Inclusion of Transgender Student-Athletes. In: NCAA Office of Inclusion .
  35. ↑ a b U Sports Press Release - Transgender Student-Athletes. In: U Sports Press Release .
  36. ↑ Transgender teen wins regional wrestling title despite attempt to ban him from competing - SportsDay. In: DallasNews.com. 18 February 2017. Abgerufen im 18 April 2017.
  37. ↑ Savannah Luke: People Profile: Balian Buschbaum. In: TransgenderUniverse.com. 31 March 2016. Abgerufen im 18 April 2017.
  38. ↑ Eerste transgender ooit in internationale volleybal. In: MetroNieuws.nl. March 2016. Abgerufen im 18 April 2017.
  39. ↑ https://competenetwork.com/one-on-one-with-transgender-powerlifter-jaycee-cooper
  40. ↑ https://masterstrack.blog/2018/09/colombian-w40-transgender-hurdler-claims-bronze-in-80h-at-malaga-worlds
  41. ↑ https://masterstrack.blog/2018/09/colombian-w40-transgender-hurdler-claims-bronze-in-80h-at-malaga-worlds/
  42. ↑ http://websites.sportstg.com/assoc_page.cgi?c=7-2168-0-0-0&sID=16845&articleID=5591016&news_task=DETAIL
  43. ↑ https://www.smh.com.au/sport/transgender-footballer-caroline-layt-says-lgbti-equality-in-sport-hasnt-progressed-in-a-decade-20171019-gz3vn8.htmland
  44. ↑ https://museumriverina.com.au/exhibitions/sporting-hall-of-fame/miller,-warren
  45. ↑ Alex Ballinger: Rachel McKinnon becomes first transgender woman to win track world title. In: Cycling Weekly, 17 October 2018. Abgerufen im 24 November 2018. 
  46. ↑ World title announcement. In: Professional Disc Golf Association, 27 July 2019. 
  47. ↑ Transitioning in the Music Industry. In: SoundGirls.org, 15 August 2019. 
  48. ↑ https://www.outsports.com/2017/12/13/16748322/britney-stinson-trans-football-baseball
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