Benutzer:Keanu Dölle/G-Code
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Vorlage:Short description Vorlage:Other uses Vorlage:Redirect Vorlage:Infobox programming language G-code (also RS-274) is the most widely used computer numerical control (CNC) programming language. It is used mainly in computer-aided manufacturing to control automated machine tools, and has many variants.
G-code instructions are provided to a machine controller (industrial computer) that tells the motors where to move, how fast to move, and what path to follow. The two most common situations are that, within a machine tool such as a lathe or mill, a cutting tool is moved according to these instructions through a toolpath cutting away material to leave only the finished workpiece and/or an unfinished workpiece is precisely positioned in any of up to nine axes[1] around the three dimensions relative to a toolpath and, either or both can move relative to each other. The same concept also extends to noncutting tools such as forming or burnishing tools, photoplotting, additive methods such as 3D printing, and measuring instruments.
Implementations
The first implementation of a numerical control programming language was developed at the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory in the late 1950s. In the decades since, many implementations have been developed by many (commercial and noncommercial) organizations. G-code has often been used in these implementations. The main standardized version used in the United States was settled by the Electronic Industries Alliance in the early 1960s.Vorlage:Citation needed A final revision was approved in February 1980 as RS-274-D.[2] In other countries, the standard ISO 6983 is often used, but many European countries use other standards. For example, DIN 66025 is used in Germany, and PN-73M-55256 and PN-93/M-55251 were formerly used in Poland.
Extensions and variations have been added independently by control manufacturers and machine tool manufacturers, and operators of a specific controller must be aware of differences of each manufacturer's product.
One standardized version of G-code, known as BCL (Binary Cutter Language), is used only on very few machines. Developed at MIT, BCL was developed to control CNC machines in terms of straight lines and arcs.[3]
During the 1970s through 1990s, many CNC machine tool builders attempted to overcome compatibility difficulties by standardizing on machine tool controllers built by Fanuc. Siemens was another market dominator in CNC controls, especially in Europe. In the 2010s, controller differences and incompatibility are not as troublesome because machining operations are usually developed with CAD/CAM applications that can output the appropriate G-code for a specific machine through a software tool called a post-processor (sometimes shortened to just a "post").
Some CNC machines use "conversational" programming, which is a wizard-like programming mode that either hides G-code or completely bypasses the use of G-code. Some popular examples are Okuma's Advanced One Touch (AOT), Southwestern Industries' ProtoTRAK, Mazak's Mazatrol, Hurco's Ultimax and Winmax, Haas' Intuitive Programming System (IPS), and Mori Seiki's CAPS conversational software.
G-code began as a limited language that lacked constructs such as loops, conditional operators, and programmer-declared variables with natural-word-including names (or the expressions in which to use them). It was unable to encode logic, but was just a way to "connect the dots" where the programmer figured out many of the dots' locations longhand. The latest implementations of G-code include macro language capabilities somewhat closer to a high-level programming language. Additionally, all primary manufacturers (e.g., Fanuc, Siemens, Heidenhain) provide access to programmable logic controller (PLC) data, such as axis positioning data and tool data,[4] via variables used by NC programs. These constructs make it easier to develop automation applications.
Specific codes
G-codes, also called preparatory codes, are any word in a CNC program that begins with the letter G. Generally it is a code telling the machine tool what type of action to perform, such as:
- Rapid movement (transport the tool as quickly as possible in between cuts)
- Controlled feed in a straight line or arc
- Series of controlled feed movements that would result in a hole being bored, a workpiece cut (routed) to a specific dimension, or a profile (contour) shape added to the edge of a workpiece
- Set tool information such as offset
- Switch coordinate systems
There are other codes; the type codes can be thought of like registers in a computer.
It has been pointed out over the years that the term "G-code" is imprecise because "G" is only one of many letter addresses in the complete language. It comes from the literal sense of the term, referring to one letter address and to the specific codes that can be formed with it (for example, G00, G01, G28), but every letter of the English alphabet is used somewhere in the language. Nevertheless, "G-code" is metonymically established as the common name of the language.
Letter addresses
Some letter addresses are used only in milling or only in turning; most are used in both. Bold below are the letters seen most frequently throughout a program.
Sources: Smid 2008;[5] Smid 2010;[6] Green et al. 1996.[7]
| Variable | Description | Corollary info |
|---|---|---|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of A axis (rotational axis around X axis) | Positive rotation is defined as a counterclockwise rotation looking from X positive towards X negative. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of B axis (rotational axis around Y axis) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of C axis (rotational axis around Z axis) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines diameter or radial offset used for cutter compensation. D is used for depth of cut on lathes. It is used for aperture selection and commands on photoplotters. | G41: left cutter compensation, G42: right cutter compensation |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Precision feedrate for threading on lathes | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines feed rate | Common units are distance per time for mills (inches per minute, IPM, or millimeters per minute, mm/min) and distance per revolution for lathes (inches per revolution, IPR, or millimeters per revolution, mm/rev) |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Address for preparatory commands | G commands often tell the control what kind of motion is wanted (e.g., rapid positioning, linear feed, circular feed, fixed cycle) or what offset value to use. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines tool length offset; Incremental axis corresponding to C axis (e.g., on a turn-mill) |
G43: Negative tool length compensation, G44: Positive tool length compensation |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines arc center in X axis for G02 or G03 arc commands. Also used as a parameter within some fixed cycles. |
The arc center is the relative distance from the current position to the arc center, not the absolute distance from the work coordinate system (WCS). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines arc center in Y axis for G02 or G03 arc commands. Also used as a parameter within some fixed cycles. |
Same corollary info as I above. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines arc center in Z axis for G02 or G03 arc commands. Also used as a parameter within some fixed cycles, equal to L address. |
Same corollary info as I above. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Fixed cycle loop count; Specification of what register to edit using G10 |
Fixed cycle loop count: Defines number of repetitions ("loops") of a fixed cycle at each position. Assumed to be 1 unless programmed with another integer. Sometimes the K address is used instead of L. With incremental positioning (G91), a series of equally spaced holes can be programmed as a loop rather than as individual positions. G10 use: Specification of what register to edit (work offsets, tool radius offsets, tool length offsets, etc.). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Miscellaneous function | Action code, auxiliary command; descriptions vary. Many M-codes call for machine functions, which is why people often say that the "M" stands for "machine", although it was not intended to. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Line (block) number in program; System parameter number to change using G10 |
Line (block) numbers: Optional, so often omitted. Necessary for certain tasks, such as M99 P address (to tell the control which block of the program to return to if not the default) or GoTo statements (if the control supports those). N numbering need not increment by 1 (for example, it can increment by 10, 20, or 1000) and can be used on every block or only in certain spots throughout a program. System parameter number: G10 allows changing of system parameters under program control.[8] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Program name | For example, O4501. For many years it was common for CNC control displays to use slashed zero glyphs to ensure effortless distinction of letter "O" from digit "0". Today's GUI controls often have a choice of fonts, like a PC does. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Serves as parameter address for various G and M codes |
|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Peck increment in canned cycles | For example, G73, G83 (peck drilling cycles) |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines size of arc radius, or defines retract height in milling canned cycles | For radii, not all controls support the R address for G02 and G03, in which case IJK vectors are used. For retract height, the "R level", as it's called, is returned to if G99 is programmed. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Defines speed, either spindle speed or surface speed depending on mode | Data type = integer. In G97 mode (which is usually the default), an integer after S is interpreted as a number of rev/min (rpm). In G96 mode (Constant Surface Speed or CSS), an integer after S is interpreted as surface speed—sfm (G20) or m/min (G21). See also Speeds and feeds. On multifunction (turn-mill or mill-turn) machines, which spindle gets the input (main spindle or subspindles) is determined by other M codes. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool selection | To understand how the T address works and how it interacts (or not) with M06, one must study the various methods, such as lathe turret programming, ATC (Automatic Tool Change, set by M06) fixed tool selection, ATC random memory tool selection, the concept of "next tool waiting", and empty tools.[5] Programming on any particular machine tool requires knowing which method that machine uses.[5] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Incremental axis corresponding to X axis (typically only lathe group A controls) Also defines dwell time on some machines (instead of "P" or "X"). |
In these controls, X and U obviate G90 and G91, respectively. On these lathes, G90 is instead a fixed cycle address for roughing. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Incremental axis corresponding to Y axis | Until the 2000s, the V address was very rarely used because most lathes that used U and W didn't have a Y-axis, so they didn't use V. (Green et al. 1996[7] did not even list V in their table of addresses.) That is still often the case, although the proliferation of live lathe tooling and turn-mill machining has made V address usage less rare than it used to be (Smid 2008[5] shows an example). See also G18. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Incremental axis corresponding to Z axis (typically only lathe group A controls) | In these controls, Z and W obviate G90 and G91, respectively. On these lathes, G90 is instead a fixed cycle address for roughing. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of X axis. Also defines dwell time on some machines (instead of "P" or "U"). |
|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of Y axis | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute or incremental position of Z axis | The main spindle's axis of rotation often determines which axis of a machine tool is labeled as Z. |
List of G-codes commonly found on FANUC and similarly designed controls for milling and turning
Sources: Smid 2008;[5] Smid 2010;[6] Green et al. 1996.[7]
- Note: Modal means a code stays in effect until replaced, or cancelled, by another permitted code. Non-Modal means it executes only once. See, for example, codes G09, G61 & G64 below.
| Code | Description | Milling ( M ) |
Turning ( T ) |
Corollary info |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Rapid positioning | M | T | On 2- or 3-axis moves, G00 (unlike G01) traditionally does not necessarily move in a single straight line between start point and endpoint. It moves each axis at its max speed until its vector quantity is achieved. A shorter vector usually finishes first (given similar axis speeds). This matters because it may yield a dog-leg or hockey-stick motion, which the programmer needs to consider, depending on what obstacles are nearby, to avoid a crash. Some machines offer interpolated rapids as a feature for ease of programming (safe to assume a straight line). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Linear interpolation | M | T | The most common workhorse code for feeding during a cut. The program specs the start and endpoints, and the control automatically calculates (interpolates) the intermediate points to pass through that yield a straight line (hence "linear"). The control then calculates the angular velocities at which to turn the axis leadscrews via their servomotors or stepper motors. The computer performs thousands of calculations per second, and the motors react quickly to each input. Thus the actual toolpath of the machining takes place with the given feed rate on a path that is accurately linear to within very small limits. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Circular interpolation, clockwise | M | T | Very similar in concept to G01. Again, the control interpolates intermediate points and commands the servo- or stepper motors to rotate the amount needed for the leadscrew to translate the motion to the correct tooltip positioning. This process repeated thousands of times per minute generates the desired toolpath. In the case of G02, the interpolation generates a circle rather than a line. As with G01, the actual toolpath of the machining takes place with the given feed rate on a path that accurately matches the ideal (in G02's case, a circle) to within very small limits. In fact, the interpolation is so precise (when all conditions are correct) that milling an interpolated circle can obviate operations such as drilling, and often even find boring. Addresses for radius or arc center: G02 and G03 take either an R address (for the radius desired on the part) or IJK addresses (for the component vectors that define the vector from the arc start point to the arc center point). Cutter comp: On most controls you cannot start G41 or G42 in G02 or G03 modes. You must already have compensated in an earlier G01 block. Often, a short linear lead-in movement is programmed, merely to allow cutter compensation before the main action, the circle-cutting begins. Full circles: When the arc start point and the arc endpoint are identical, the tool cuts a 360° arc (a full circle). (Some older controls do not support this because arcs cannot cross between quadrants of the cartesian system. Instead, they require four quarter-circle arcs programmed back-to-back.) |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Circular interpolation, counterclockwise | M | T | Same corollary info as for G02. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Dwell | M | T | Takes an address for dwell period (may be X, U, or P). The dwell period is specified by a control parameter, typically set to milliseconds. Some machines can accept either X1.0 (s) or P1000 (ms), which are equivalent. Vorlage:Visible anchor: Often the dwell needs only to last one or two full spindle rotations. This is typically much less than one second. Be aware when choosing a duration value that a long dwell is a waste of cycle time. In some situations, it won't matter, but for high-volume repetitive production (over thousands of cycles), it is worth calculating that perhaps you only need 100 ms, and you can call it 200 to be safe, but 1000 is just a waste (too long). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor P10000 | High-precision contour control (HPCC) | M | Uses a deep look-ahead buffer and simulation processing to provide better axis movement acceleration and deceleration during contour milling | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | AI Advanced Preview Control | M | Uses a deep look-ahead buffer and simulation processing to provide better axis movement acceleration and deceleration during contour milling | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) Machining | M | Activates Non-Uniform Rational B Spline for complex curve and waveform machining (this code is confirmed in Mazatrol 640M ISO Programming) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Imaginary axis designation | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Exact stop check, non-modal | M | T | The modal version is G61. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Programmable data input | M | T | Modifies the value of work coordinate and tool offsets[9][8] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Data write cancel | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | XY plane selection | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | ZX plane selection | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | YZ plane selection | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Programming in inches | M | T | Somewhat uncommon except in USA and (to lesser extent) Canada and UK. However, in the global marketplace, competence with both G20 and G21 always stands some chance of being necessary at any time. The usual minimum increment in G20 is one ten-thousandth of an inch (0.0001"), which is a larger distance than the usual minimum increment in G21 (one thousandth of a millimeter, .001 mm, that is, one micrometre). This physical difference sometimes favors G21 programming. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Programming in millimeters (mm) | M | T | Prevalent worldwide. However, in the global marketplace, competence with both G20 and G21 always stands some chance of being necessary at any time. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Return to home position (machine zero, aka machine reference point) | M | T | Takes X Y Z addresses which define the intermediate point that the tool tip will pass through on its way home to machine zero. They are in terms of part zero (aka program zero), NOT machine zero. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Return to secondary home position (machine zero, aka machine reference point) | M | T | Takes a P address specifying which machine zero point to use if the machine has several secondary points (P1 to P4). Takes X Y Z addresses that define the intermediate point that the tooltip passes through on its way home to machine zero. These are expressed in terms of part zero (aka program zero), NOT machine zero. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Feed until skip function | M | Used for probes and tool length measurement systems. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Single-point threading, longhand style (if not using a cycle, e.g., G76) | T | Similar to G01 linear interpolation, except with automatic spindle synchronization for single-point threading. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Constant-pitch threading | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Single-point threading, longhand style (if not using a cycle, e.g., G76) | T | Some lathe controls assign this mode to G33 rather than G32. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Variable-pitch threading | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool radius compensation off | M | T | Turn off cutter radius compensation (CRC). Cancels G41 or G42. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool radius compensation left | M | T | Turn on cutter radius compensation (CRC), left, for climb milling. Milling: Given righthand-helix cutter and M03 spindle direction, G41 corresponds to climb milling (down milling). Takes an address (D or H) that calls an offset register value for radius. Turning: Often needs no D or H address on lathes, because whatever tool is active automatically calls its geometry offsets with it. (Each turret station is bound to its geometry offset register.) G41 and G42 for milling have been partially automated and obviated (although not completely) since CAM programming has become more common. CAM systems let the user program as if using a zero-diameter cutter. The fundamental concept of cutter radius compensation is still in play (i.e., that the surface produced will be distance R away from the cutter center), but the programming mindset is different. The human does not choreograph the toolpath with conscious, painstaking attention to G41, G42, and G40, because the CAM software takes care of that. The software has various CRC mode selections, such as computer, control, wear, reverse wear, off, some of which do not use G41/G42 at all (good for roughing, or wide finish tolerances), and others that use it so that the wear offset can still be tweaked at the machine (better for tight finish tolerances). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool radius compensation right | M | T | Turn on cutter radius compensation (CRC), right, for conventional milling. Similar corollary info as for G41. Given righthand-helix cutter and M03 spindle direction, G42 corresponds to conventional milling (up milling). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool height offset compensation negative | M | Takes an address, usually H, to call the tool length offset register value. The value is negative because it will be added to the gauge line position. G43 is the commonly used version (vs G44). | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool height offset compensation positive | M | Takes an address, usually H, to call the tool length offset register value. The value is positive because it will be subtracted from the gauge line position. G44 is the seldom-used version (vs G43). | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Axis offset single increase | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Axis offset single decrease | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Axis offset double increase | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Axis offset double decrease | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tool length offset compensation cancel | M | Cancels G43 or G44. | |
| G50 | Define the maximum spindle speed | T | Takes an S address integer, which is interpreted as rpm. Without this feature, G96 mode (CSS) would rev the spindle to "wide open throttle" when closely approaching the axis of rotation. | |
| G50 | Scaling function cancel | M | ||
| G50 | Position register (programming of vector from part zero to tooltip) | T | Position register is one of the original methods to relate the part (program) coordinate system to the tool position, which indirectly relates it to the machine coordinate system, the only position the control really "knows". Not commonly programmed anymore because G54 to G59 (WCSs) are a better, newer method. Called via G50 for turning, G92 for milling. Those G addresses also have alternate meanings (which see). Position register can still be useful for datum shift programming. The "manual absolute" switch, which has very few useful applications in WCS contexts, was more useful in position register contexts because it allowed the operator to move the tool to a certain distance from the part (for example, by touching off a 2.0000" gage) and then declare to the control what the distance-to-go shall be (2.0000). | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Local coordinate system (LCS) | M | Temporarily shifts program zero to a new location. It is simply "an offset from an offset", that is, an additional offset added onto the WCS offset. This simplifies programming in some cases. The typical example is moving from part to part in a multipart setup. With G54 active, G52 X140.0 Y170.0 shifts program zero 140 mm over in X and 170 mm over in Y. When the part "over there" is done, G52 X0 Y0 returns program zero to normal G54 (by reducing G52 offset to nothing). The same result can also be achieved (1) using multiple WCS origins, G54/G55/G56/G57/G58/G59; (2) on newer controls, G54.1 P1/P2/P3/etc. (all the way up to P48); or (3) using G10 for programmable data input, in which the program can write new offset values to the offset registers.[8] The method to use depends on the shop-specific application. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Machine coordinate system | M | T | Takes absolute coordinates (X,Y,Z,A,B,C) with reference to machine zero rather than program zero. Can be helpful for tool changes. Nonmodal and absolute only. Subsequent blocks are interpreted as "back to G54" even if it is not explicitly programmed. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Work coordinate systems (WCSs) | M | T | Have largely replaced position register (G50 and G92). Each tuple of axis offsets relates program zero directly to machine zero. Standard is 6 tuples (G54 to G59), with optional extensibility to 48 more via G54.1 P1 to P48. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Extended work coordinate systems | M | T | Up to 48 more WCSs besides the 6 provided as standard by G54 to G59. Note floating-point extension of G-code data type (formerly all integers). Other examples have also evolved (e.g., G84.2). Modern controls have the hardware to handle it. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Exact stop check, modal | M | T | Can be canceled with G64. The non-modal version is G09. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Automatic corner override | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Default cutting mode (cancel exact stop check mode) | M | T | Cancels G61. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Rotate coordinate system | M | Rotates coordinate system in the current plane given with G17, G18, or G19. Center of rotation is given with two parameters, which vary with each vendor's implementation. Rotate with angle given with argument R. This can be used, for instance, to align the coordinate system with a misaligned part. It can also be used to repeat movement sequences around a center. Not all vendors support coordinate system rotation. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Turn off coordinate system rotation | M | Cancels G68. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Fixed cycle, multiple repetitive cycle, for finishing (including contours) | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Fixed cycle, multiple repetitive cycle, for roughing (Z-axis emphasis) | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Fixed cycle, multiple repetitive cycle, for roughing (X-axis emphasis) | T | ||
| G73 | Fixed cycle, multiple repetitive cycle, for roughing, with pattern repetition | T | ||
| G73 | Peck drilling cycle for milling – high-speed (NO full retraction from pecks) | M | Retracts only as far as a clearance increment (system parameter). For when chipbreaking is the main concern, but chip clogging of flutes is not. Compare G83. | |
| G74 | Peck drilling cycle for turning | T | ||
| G74 | Tapping cycle for milling, lefthand thread, M04 spindle direction | M | See notes at G84. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Peck grooving cycle for turning | T | ||
| G76 | Fine boring cycle for milling | M | Includes OSS and shift (oriented spindle stop and shift tool off centerline for retraction) | |
| G76 | Threading cycle for turning, multiple repetitive cycle | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Cancel canned cycle | M | T | Milling: Cancels all cycles such as G73, G81, G83, etc. Z-axis returns either to Z-initial level or R level, as programmed (G98 or G99, respectively). Turning: Usually not needed on lathes, because a new group-1 G address (G00 to G03) cancels whatever cycle was active. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Simple drilling cycle | M | No dwell built in | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Drilling cycle with dwell | M | Dwells at hole bottom (Z-depth) for the number of milliseconds specified by the P address. Good for when hole bottom finish matters. Good for spot drilling because the divot is certain to clean up evenly. Consider the "choosing dwell duration" note at G04. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Peck drilling cycle (full retraction from pecks) | M | Returns to R-level after each peck. Good for clearing flutes of chips. Compare G73. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tapping cycle, righthand thread, M03 spindle direction | M | G74 and G84 are the righthand and lefthand "pair" for old-school tapping with a non-rigid toolholder ("tapping head" style). Compare the rigid tapping "pair", G84.2 and G84.3. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tapping cycle, righthand thread, M03 spindle direction, rigid toolholder | M | See notes at G84. Rigid tapping synchronizes speed and feeds according to the desired thread helix. That is, it synchronizes degrees of spindle rotation with microns of axial travel. Therefore, it can use a rigid tool holder to hold the tap. This feature is not available on old machines or newer low-end machines, which must use "tapping head" motion (G74/G84). | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Tapping cycle, lefthand thread, M04 spindle direction, rigid toolholder | M | See notes at G84 and G84.2. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | boring cycle, feed in/feed out | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | boring cycle, feed in/spindle stop/rapid out | M | Boring tool leaves a slight score mark on the way back out. Appropriate cycle for some applications; for others, G76 (OSS/shift) can be used instead. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | boring cycle, backboring | M | For backboring. Returns to initial level only (G98); this cycle cannot use G99 because its R level is on the far side of the part, away from the spindle headstock. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | boring cycle, feed in/spindle stop/manual operation | M | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | boring cycle, feed in/dwell/feed out | M | G89 is like G85 but with dwell added at bottom of hole. | |
| G90 | Absolute programming | M | T (B) | Positioning defined with reference to part zero. Milling: Always as above. Turning: Sometimes as above (Fanuc group type B and similarly designed), but on most lathes (Fanuc group type A and similarly designed), G90/G91 are not used for absolute/incremental modes. Instead, U and W are the incremental addresses and X and Z are the absolute addresses. On these lathes, G90 is instead a fixed cycle address for roughing. |
| G90 | Fixed cycle, simple cycle, for roughing (Z-axis emphasis) | T (A) | When not serving for absolute programming (above) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Absolute arc programming | M | I, J, K positioning defined with reference to part zero. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Incremental programming | M | T (B) | Positioning defined with reference to previous position. Milling: Always as above. Turning: Sometimes as above (Fanuc group type B and similarly designed), but on most lathes (Fanuc group type A and similarly designed), G90/G91 are not used for absolute/incremental modes. Instead, U and W are the incremental addresses and X and Z are the absolute addresses. On these lathes, G90 is a fixed cycle address for roughing. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Incremental arc programming | M | I, J, K positioning defined with reference to previous position. | |
| G92 | Position register (programming of vector from part zero to tool tip) | M | T (B) | Same corollary info as at G50 position register. Milling: Always as above. Turning: Sometimes as above (Fanuc group type B and similarly designed), but on most lathes (Fanuc group type A and similarly designed), position register is G50. |
| G92 | Threading cycle, simple cycle | T (A) | ||
| G94 | Feedrate per minute | M | T (B) | On group type A lathes, feedrate per minute is G98. |
| G94 | Fixed cycle, simple cycle, for roughing (X-axis emphasis) | T (A) | When not serving for feedrate per minute (above) | |
| G95 | Feedrate per revolution | M | T (B) | On group type A lathes, feedrate per revolution is G99. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Constant surface speed (CSS) | T | Varies spindle speed automatically to achieve a constant surface speed. See speeds and feeds. Takes an S address integer, which is interpreted as sfm in G20 mode or as m/min in G21 mode. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Constant spindle speed | M | T | Takes an S address integer, which is interpreted as rev/min (rpm). The default speed mode per system parameter if no mode is programmed. |
| G98 | Return to initial Z level in canned cycle | M | ||
| G98 | Feedrate per minute (group type A) | T (A) | Feedrate per minute is G94 on group type B. | |
| G99 | Return to R level in canned cycle | M | ||
| G99 | Feedrate per revolution (group type A) | T (A) | Feedrate per revolution is G95 on group type B. | |
| G100 | Tool length measurement | M |
List of M-codes commonly found on FANUC and similarly designed controls for milling and turning
Sources: Smid 2008;[5] Smid 2010;[6] Green et al. 1996.[7]
Some older controls require M codes to be in separate blocks (that is, not on the same line).
| Code | Description | Milling ( M ) |
Turning ( T ) |
Corollary info |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Compulsory stop | M | T | Non-optional—machine always stops on reaching M00 in the program execution. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Optional stop | M | T | Machine only stops at M01 if operator pushes the optional stop button. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | End of program | M | T | Program ends; execution may or may not return to program top (depending on the control); may or may not reset register values. M02 was the original program-end code, now considered obsolete, but still supported for backward compatibility.[10] Many modern controls treat M02 as equivalent to M30.[10] See M30 for additional discussion of control status upon executing M02 or M30. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Spindle on (clockwise rotation) | M | T | The speed of the spindle is determined by the address S, in either revolutions per minute (G97 mode; default) or surface feet per minute or [surface] meters per minute (G96 mode [CSS] under either G20 or G21). The right-hand rule can be used to determine which direction is clockwise and which direction is counter-clockwise.
Right-hand-helix screws moving in the tightening direction (and right-hand-helix flutes spinning in the cutting direction) are defined as moving in the M03 direction, and are labeled "clockwise" by convention. The M03 direction is always M03 regardless of the local vantage point and local CW/CCW distinction. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Spindle on (counterclockwise rotation) | M | T | See comment above at M03. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Spindle stop | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Automatic tool change (ATC) | M | T (some-times) | Many lathes do not use M06 because the T address itself indexes the turret. Programming on any particular machine tool requires knowing which method that machine uses. To understand how the T address works and how it interacts (or not) with M06, one must study the various methods, such as lathe turret programming, ATC fixed tool selection, ATC random memory tool selection, the concept of "next tool waiting", and empty tools.[5] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Coolant on (mist) | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Coolant on (flood) | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Coolant off | M | T | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Pallet clamp on | M | For machining centers with pallet changers | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Pallet clamp off | M | For machining centers with pallet changers | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Spindle on (clockwise rotation) and coolant on (flood) | M | This one M-code does the work of both M03 and M08. It is not unusual for specific machine models to have such combined commands, which make for shorter, more quickly written programs. | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Spindle orientation | M | T | Spindle orientation is more often called within cycles (automatically) or during setup (manually), but it is also available under program control via M19. The abbreviation OSS (oriented spindle stop) may be seen in reference to an oriented stop within cycles.
The relevance of spindle orientation has increased as technology has advanced. Although 4- and 5-axis contour milling and CNC single-pointing have depended on spindle position encoders for decades, before the advent of widespread live tooling and mill-turn/turn-mill systems, it was not as often relevant in "regular" (non-"special") machining for the operator (as opposed to the machine) to know the angular orientation of a spindle as it is today, except in certain contexts (such as tool change, or G76 fine boring cycles with choreographed tool retraction). Most milling of features indexed around a turned workpiece was accomplished with separate operations on indexing head setups; in a sense, indexing heads were originally invented as separate pieces of equipment, to be used in separate operations, which could provide precise spindle orientation in a world where it otherwise mostly didn't exist (and didn't need to). But as CAD/CAM and multiaxis CNC machining with multiple rotary-cutter axes becomes the norm, even for "regular" (non-"special") applications, machinists now frequently care about stepping just about any spindle through its 360° with precision. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Mirror, X-axis | M | ||
| M21 | Tailstock forward | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Mirror, Y-axis | M | ||
| M22 | Tailstock backward | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Mirror OFF | M | ||
| M23 | Thread gradual pullout ON | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Thread gradual pullout OFF | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | End of program, with return to program top | M | T | Today, M30 is considered the standard program-end code, and returns execution to the top of the program. Most controls also still support the original program-end code, M02, usually by treating it as equivalent to M30. Additional info: Compare M02 with M30. First, M02 was created, in the days when the punched tape was expected to be short enough to splice into a continuous loop (which is why on old controls, M02 triggered no tape rewinding).[10] The other program-end code, M30, was added later to accommodate longer punched tapes, which were wound on a reel and thus needed rewinding before another cycle could start.[10] On many newer controls, there is no longer a difference in how the codes are executed—both act like M30. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Gear select – gear 1 | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Gear select – gear 2 | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Gear select – gear 3 | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Gear select – gear 4 | T | ||
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Feedrate override allowed | M | T | MFO (manual feedrate override) |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Feedrate override NOT allowed | M | T | Prevent MFO (manual feedrate override). This rule is also usually called (automatically) within tapping cycles or single-point threading cycles, where feed is precisely correlated to speed. Same with SSO (spindle speed override) and feed hold button. Some controls are capable of providing SSO and MFO during threading. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Unload Last tool from spindle | M | T | Also empty spindle. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Automatic pallet change (APC) | M | For machining centers with pallet changers | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Subprogram call | M | T | Takes an address P to specify which subprogram to call, for example, "M98 P8979" calls subprogram O8979. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Subprogram end | M | T | Usually placed at end of subprogram, where it returns execution control to the main program. The default is that control returns to the block following the M98 call in the main program. Return to a different block number can be specified by a P address. M99 can also be used in main program with block skip for endless loop of main program on bar work on lathes (until operator toggles block skip). |
| M100 | Clean Nozzle | Some 3d printers have a predefined routine for wiping the extruder nozzle in the X and Y direction often against a flexible scraper mounted to the dump area. |
Example program
This is a generic program that demonstrates the use of G-Code to turn a part that is 1" diameter by 1" long. Assume that a bar of material is in the machine and that the bar is slightly oversized in length and diameter and that the bar protrudes by more than 1" from the face of the chuck. (Caution: This is generic, it might not work on any real machine! Pay particular attention to point 5 below.)
Several points to note:
- There is room for some programming style, even in this short program. The grouping of codes in line N06 could have been put on multiple lines. Doing so may have made it easier to follow program execution.
- Many codes are modal, meaning they remain in effect until cancelled or replaced by a contradictory code. For example, once variable speed cutting (CSS) had been selected (G96), it stays in effect until the end of the program. In operation, the spindle speed increases as the tool near the center of the work to maintain constant surface speed. Similarly, once rapid feed is selected (G00), all tool movements are rapid until a feed rate code (G01, G02, G03) is selected.
- It is common practice to use a load monitor with CNC machinery. The load monitor stops the machine if the spindle or feed loads exceed a preset value that is set during the set-up operation. The jobs of the load monitor are various:
- Prevent machine damage in the event of tool breakage or a programming mistake.
- This is especially important because it allows safe "lights-out machining", in which the operators set up the job and start it during the day, then go home for the night, leaving the machines running and cutting parts during the night. Because no human is around to hear, see, or smell a problem such as a broken tool, the load monitor serves an important sentry duty. When it senses overload condition, which semantically suggests a dull or broken tool, it commands a stop to the machining. Technology is available nowadays to send an alert to someone remotely (e.g., the sleeping owner, operator, or owner-operator) if desired, which can allow them to come to intercede and get production going again, then leave once more. This can be the difference between profitability or loss on some jobs because lights-out machining reduces labor hours per part.
- Warn of a tool that is becoming dull and must be replaced or sharpened. Thus, an operator tending multiple machines is told by a machine, essentially, "Pause what you're doing over there, and come attend to something over here."
- Prevent machine damage in the event of tool breakage or a programming mistake.
- It is common practice to bring the tool in rapidly to a "safe" point that is close to the part—in this case, 0.1" away—and then start feeding the tool. How close that "safe" distance is, depends on the preference of the programmer and/or operator and the maximum material condition for the raw stock.
- If the program is wrong, there is a high probability that the machine will crash, or ram the tool into the part, vice, or machine under high power. This can be costly, especially in newer machining centers. It is possible to intersperse the program with optional stops (M01 code) that let the program run piecemeal for testing purposes. The optional stops remain in the program but are skipped during normal running. Fortunately, most CAD/CAM software ships with CNC simulators that display the movement of the tool as the program executes. Nowadays the surrounding objects (chuck, clamps, fixture, tailstock, and more) are included in the 3D models, and the simulation is much like an entire video game or virtual reality environment, making unexpected crashes much less likely.
- Many modern CNC machines also allow programmers to execute the program in a simulation mode and observe the operating parameters of the machine at a particular execution point. This enables programmers to discover semantic errors (as opposed to syntax errors) before losing material or tools to an incorrect program. Depending on the size of the part, wax blocks may be used for testing purposes as well. Additionally, many machines support operator overrides for both rapid and feed rate that can be used to reduce the speed of the machine, allowing operators to stop program execution before a crash occurs.
- The line numbers that have been included in the program above (i.e. Vorlage:Code) are usually not necessary for the operation of a machine and increase file sizes, so they are seldom used in the industry. However, if branching or looping statements are used in the code, then line numbers may well be included as the target of those statements (e.g. Vorlage:Codett).
- Some machines do not allow multiple M codes in the same line.
Programming environments
Vorlage:Original research section G-code's programming environments have evolved in parallel with those of general programming—from the earliest environments (e.g., writing a program with a pencil, typing it into a tape puncher) to the latest environments that combine CAD (computer-aided design), CAM (computer-aided manufacturing), and richly featured G-code editors. (G-code editors are analogous to XML editors, using colors and indents semantically [plus other features] to aid the user in ways that basic text editors can't. CAM packages are analogous to IDEs in general programming.)
Two high-level paradigm shifts have been toward:
- abandoning "manual programming" (with nothing but a pencil or text editor and a human mind) for CAM software systems that generate G-code automatically via postprocessors (analogous to the development of visual techniques in general programming)
- abandoning hardcoded constructs for parametric ones (analogous to the difference in general programming between hardcoding a constant into an equation versus declaring it a variable and assigning new values to it at will; and to the object-oriented approach in general).
Macro (parametric) CNC programming uses human-friendly variable names, relational operators, and loop structures, much as general programming does, to capture information and logic with machine-readable semantics. Whereas older manual CNC programming could only describe particular instances of parts in numeric form, macro programming describes abstractions that can easily apply in a wide variety of instances.
The tendency is comparable to a computer programming evolution from low-level programming languages to high-level ones.Vorlage:Citation needed
STEP-NC reflects the same theme, which can be viewed as yet another step along a path that started with the development of machine tools, jigs and fixtures, and numerical control, which all sought to "build the skill into the tool." Recent developments of G-code and STEP-NC aim to build the information and semantics into the tool. This idea is not new; from the beginning of numerical control, the concept of an end-to-end CAD/CAM environment was the goal of such early technologies as DAC-1 and APT. Those efforts were fine for huge corporations like GM and Boeing. However, small and medium enterprises went through an era of simpler implementations of NC, with relatively primitive "connect-the-dots" G-code and manual programming until CAD/CAM improved and disseminated throughout the industry.
Any machine tool with a great number of axes, spindles, and tool stations is difficult to program well manually. It has been done over the years, but not easily. This challenge has existed for decades in CNC screw machine and rotary transfer programming, and it now also arises with today's newer machining centers called "turn-mills", "mill-turns", "multitasking machines", and "multifunction machines". Now that CAD/CAM systems are widely used, CNC programming (such as with G-code) requires CAD/CAM (as opposed to manual programming) to be practical and competitive in the market segments these classes of machines serve.[11] As Smid says, "Combine all these axes with some additional features, and the amount of knowledge required to succeed is quite overwhelming, to say the least."[12] At the same time, however, programmers still must thoroughly understand the principles of manual programming and must think critically and second-guess some aspects of the software's decisions.
Since about the mid-2000s, it seems "the death of manual programming" (that is, of writing lines of G-code without CAD/CAM assistance) may be approaching. However, it is currently only in some contexts that manual programming is obsolete. Plenty of CAM programming takes place nowadays among people who are rusty on, or incapable of, manual programming—but it is not true that all CNC programming can be done, or done as well or as efficiently, without knowing G-code.[13][14] Tailoring and refining the CNC program at the machine is an area of practice where it can be easier or more efficient to edit the G-code directly rather than editing the CAM toolpaths and re-post-processing the program.
Making a living cutting parts on computer-controlled machines has been made both easier and harder by CAD/CAM software. Efficiently written G-code can be a challenge for CAM software. Ideally, a CNC machinist should know both manual and CAM programming well so that the benefits of both brute-force CAM and elegant hand programming can be used where needed. Many older machines were built with limited computer memory at a time when memory was very expensive; 32K was considered plenty of room for manual programs whereas modern CAM software can post gigabytes of code. CAM excels at getting a program out quickly that may take up more machine memory and take longer to run. This often makes it quite valuable to machining a low quantity of parts. But a balance must be struck between the time it takes to create a program and the time the program takes to machine apart. It has become easier and faster to make just a few parts on the newer machines with much memory. This has taken its toll on both hand programmers and manual machinists. Given natural turnover into retirement, it is not realistic to expect to maintain a large pool of operators who are highly skilled in manual programming when their commercial environment mostly can no longer provide the countless hours of deep experience it took to build that skill; and yet the loss of this experience base can be appreciated, and there are times when such a pool is sorely missed because some CNC runs still cannot be optimized without such skill.
Abbreviations used by programmers and operators
This list is only a selection and, except for a few key terms, mostly avoids duplicating the many abbreviations listed at engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols.
| Abbreviation | Expansion | Corollary info |
|---|---|---|
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | automatic pallet changer | See M60. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | automatic tool changer | See M06. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | counterclockwise | See M04. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | computerized numerical control | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | cutter radius compensation | See also G40, G41, and G42. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | cutting speed | Referring to cutting speed (surface speed) in surface feet per minute (sfm, sfpm) or meters per minute (m/min). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | constant surface speed | See G96 for explanation. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | clockwise | See M03. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | direct numerical control or distributed numerical control | Sometimes referred to as "Drip Feeding" or "Drip Numerical Control" due to the fact that a file can be "drip" fed to a machine, line by line, over a serial protocol such as RS232. DNC allows machines with limited amounts of memory to run larger files. |
| DOC | depth of cut | Refers to how deep (in the Z direction) a given cut will be |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | end of block | The G-code synonym of end of line (EOL). A control character equating to newline. In many implementations of G-code (as also, more generally, in many programming languages), a semicolon (;) is synonymous with EOB. In some controls (especially older ones) it must be explicitly typed and displayed. Other software treats it as a nonprinting/nondisplaying character, much like word processing apps treat the pilcrow (¶). |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | emergency stop | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | external | On the operation panel, one of the positions of the mode switch is "external", sometimes abbreviated as "EXT", referring to any external source of data, such as tape or DNC, in contrast to the computer memory that is built into the CNC itself. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | full indicator movement | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | feet per minute | See SFM. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | horizontal boring mill | A type of machine tool that specializes in boring, typically large holes in large workpieces. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | horizontal machining center | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | high speed machining | Refers to machining at speeds considered high by traditional standards. Usually achieved with special geared-up spindle attachments or with the latest high-rev spindles. On modern machines HSM refers to a cutting strategy with a light, constant chip load and high feed rate, usually at or near the full depth of cut.[15] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | high-speed steel | A type of tool steel used to make cutters. Still widely used today (versatile, affordable, capable) although carbide and others continue to erode its share of commercial applications due to their higher rate of material removal. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | inch(es) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | inches per flute | Also known as chip load or IPT. See F address and feed rate. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | inches per minute | See F address and feed rate. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | inches per revolution | See F address and feed rate. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | inches per tooth | Also known as chip load or IPF. See F address and feed rate. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | manual data input | A mode of operation in which the operator can type in lines of program (blocks of code) and then execute them by pushing cycle start. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | memory | On the operation panel, one of the positions of the mode switch is "memory", sometimes abbreviated as "MEM", referring to the computer memory that is built into the CNC itself, in contrast to any external source of data, such as tape or DNC. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | manual feed rate override | The MFO dial or buttons allow the CNC operator or machinist to multiply the programmed feed value by any percentage typically between 10% and 200%. This is to allow fine-tuning of speeds and feeds to minimize chatter, improve surface finish, lengthen tool life, and so on. The SSO and MFO features can be locked out for various reasons, such as for synchronization of speed and feed in threading, or even to prevent "soldiering"/"dogging" by operators. On some newer controls, the synchronization of speed and feed in threading is sophisticated enough that SSO and MFO can be available during threading, which helps with fine-tuning speeds and feeds to reduce chatter on the threads or in repair work involving the picking up of existing threads.[16] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | millimetre(s) | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | manual pulse generator | Referring to the handle (handwheel) (each click of the handle generates one pulse of servo input) |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | numerical control | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | oriented spindle stop | See comments at M19. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | surface feet per minute | See also speeds and feeds and G96. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | surface feet per minute | See also speeds and feeds and G96. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | single-point threading | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | spindle speed override | The SSO dial or buttons allow the CNC operator or machinist to multiply the programmed speed value by any percentage typically between 10% and 200%. This is to allow fine-tuning of speeds and feeds to minimize chatter, improve surface finish, lengthen tool life, and so on. The SSO and MFO features can be locked out for various reasons, such as for synchronization of speed and feed in threading, or even to prevent "soldiering"/"dogging" by operators. On some newer controls, the synchronization of speed and feed in threading is sophisticated enough that SSO and MFO can be available during threading, which helps with fine-tuning speeds and feeds to reduce chatter on the threads or in repair work involving the picking up of existing threads.[16] |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor or T/C | tool change, tool changer | See M06. |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | total indicator reading | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | threads per inch | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | Universal Serial Bus | One type of connection for data transfer |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | vertical machining center | |
| Vorlage:Visible anchor | vertical turret lathe | A type of machine tool that is essentially a lathe with its Z-axis turned vertical, allowing the faceplate to sit like a large turntable. The VTL concept overlaps with the vertical boring mill concept. |
See also
- 3D printing
- Canned cycle
- LinuxCNC - a free CNC software with many resources for G-code documentation
- Drill file
- HP-GL
Extended developments
Similar concepts
Concerns during application
- Cutter location, cutter compensation, offset parameters
- Coordinate systems
References
Bibliography
- Vorlage:MachinerysHandbook25e
- Vorlage:Smid2008
- Vorlage:Smid2010
- Smid, Peter (2004) Fanuc CNC Custom Macros[1], Industrial Press, ISBN 978-0831131579
External links
- CNC G-Code and M-Code Programming
- Tutorial for G-code
- “The NIST RS274NGC Interpreter – Version 3”, in NIST[2], 1 Aug 2000, NISTIR 6556
- http://museum.mit.edu/150/86 Has several links (including history of MIT Servo Lab)
- Complete list of G-code used by most 3D printers
- Fanuc and Haas G-code Reference
- Fanuc and Haas G-code Tutorial
- Haas Milling Manual
- G Code For Lathe & Milling
- M Code for Lathe & Milling
[[Category:Computer-aided engineering]]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[Category:Metalworking]]
- ↑ Karlo Apro (2008). Secrets of 5-Axis Machining. Industrial Press Inc. Vorlage:ISBN.
- ↑ EIA Standard RS-274-D Interchangeable Variable Block Data Format for Positioning, Contouring, and Contouring/Positioning Numerically Controlled Machines, Washington D.C.: Electronic Industries Association, February 1979
- ↑ Libicki Martin.: Information Technology Standards : Quest for the Common Byte.. Elsevier Science, Burlington 1995, ISBN 9781483292489, S. 321, OCLC 895436474.
- ↑ Fanuc macro system variables. Abgerufen am 30. Juni 2014.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Vorlage:Harvnb.
- ↑ a b c Vorlage:Harvnb.
- ↑ a b c d Vorlage:Harvnb.
- ↑ a b c Vorlage:Harvnb
- ↑ FAQ's - At Your Service. In: atyourservice.haascnc.com . Archiviert vom Original am 1 January 2015. Abgerufen im 5 April 2018.
- ↑ a b c d Vorlage:Harvnb.
- ↑ MMS editorial staff (2010-12-20), “CAM system simplifies Swiss-type lathe programming”, in Modern Machine Shop[3], volume 83, issue 8 [2011 Jan], pages 100–105
- ↑ Vorlage:Harvnb.
- ↑ Lynch, Mike (2010-01-18), “When programmers should know G code”, in Modern Machine Shop[4], online edition
- ↑ Lynch, Mike (2011-10-19), “Five CNC myths and misconceptions [CNC Tech Talk column, Editor's Commentary]”, in Modern Machine Shop[5], online edition
- ↑ Dan Marinac: Tool Path Strategies For High-Speed Machining. In: www.mmsonline.com . Abgerufen am 6. März 2018.
- ↑ a b Korn, Derek (2014-05-06), “What is arbitrary speed threading?”, in Modern Machine Shop[6]
