Benutzer:Tobiasi0/Barack Obamas Präsidentschaft

{{Importartikel}} {{short description|U.S. presidential administration from 2009 to 2017}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{For timeline|Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency}} {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}} {{Infobox administration | image = President Barack Obama.jpg | name = Presidency of Barack Obama | term_start = January 20, 2009 | term_end = January 20, 2017 | president = [[Barack Obama]] | president_link = President of the United States | cabinet = ''[[Cabinet of Barack Obama|See list]]'' | party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | election = {{hlist|[[2008 United States presidential election|2008]]|[[2012 United States presidential election|2012]]}} | seat = [[White House]] | predecessor = [[Presidency of George W. Bush|George W. Bush]] | successor = [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Donald Trump]] | seal = Seal of the President of the United States.svg | seal_caption = Seal of the President | archive_url = https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ | library_url = https://www.obamalibrary.gov/ }} {{Barack Obama sidebar}} The '''presidency of Barack Obama''' began at noon [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]] (17:00 UTC) on January 20, 2009, when [[Barack Obama]] was [[First inauguration of Barack Obama|inaugurated]] as the [[List of presidents of the United States|44th]] [[president of the United States]], and ended on January 20, 2017. Obama, a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] from [[Illinois]], took office following a decisive victory over [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee [[John McCain]] in the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008 presidential election]]. Four years later, in the [[2012 United States presidential election|2012 presidential election]], he defeated Republican nominee [[Mitt Romney]] to win re-election. Obama was succeeded by Republican [[Donald Trump]], who won the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]]. He was the [[List of United States Presidential firsts#Barack Obama|first]] [[African American]] president, the first [[multiracial]] president, the first non-white president, and the first president to have been born in [[Hawaii]]. Obama's first-term actions addressed the [[Financial crisis of 2007–08|global financial crisis]] and included a [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|major stimulus package]], a partial extension of the [[Bush tax cuts]], legislation to [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act|reform health care]], a major [[Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act|financial regulation reform bill]], and the end of a major US [[Iraq War|military presence]] in [[Iraq]]. Obama also appointed [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] Justices [[Elena Kagan]] and [[Sonia Sotomayor]], the latter of whom became the first [[Hispanic American]] on the Supreme Court. Democrats controlled both houses of Congress until Republicans won a majority in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] in the [[2010 United States elections|2010 elections]]. Following the elections, Obama and Congressional Republicans engaged in a protracted stand-off over government spending levels and the [[United States debt ceiling|debt ceiling]]. The Obama administration's policy against terrorism downplayed Bush's counterinsurgency model, expanding air strikes and making extensive use of special forces, and encouraging greater reliance on host-government militaries. The Obama administration orchestrated the [[Death of Osama bin Laden#Operation Neptune Spear|military operation]] that resulted in the [[killing of Osama bin Laden]] on May 2, 2011. In his second term, Obama took steps to [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]], signing a major [[Paris Agreement|international climate agreement]] and an [[executive order]] to limit [[carbon emission]]s. Obama also presided over the implementation of the [[Affordable Care Act]] and other legislation passed in his first term, and he negotiated rapprochements with Iran and Cuba. The number of American soldiers in Afghanistan fell dramatically during Obama's second term, though U.S. soldiers remained in Afghanistan throughout Obama's presidency and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|continue to as of 2021]]. Republicans took control of the Senate after the [[2014 United States elections|2014 elections]], and Obama continued to grapple with Congressional Republicans over government spending, immigration, judicial nominations, and other issues. ==Major acts and legislation== '''Economic policy actions''' * Responding to the [[Great Recession]] ** [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act]] ** [[Effects of the 2008–10 automotive industry crisis on the United States|Automotive industry bailout]] * [[Wall Street]] reform ** [[Credit CARD Act of 2009]] ** [[Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act]] * Taxation and spending ** [[Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010]] ** [[Budget Control Act of 2011]] ** [[American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012]] ** [[2016 United States federal budget#Budget agreement|Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015]] * 2013 [[United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2013|debt ceiling crisis]] and [[United States federal government shutdown of 2013|government shutdown]] ** [[Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014]] ** [[Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013]] '''Other domestic policy actions''' * [[Health care reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]] ** [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] ** [[Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010]] * [[Education in the United States|Education]] ** [[Race to the Top]] competitive grant program ** [[Every Student Succeeds Act]] * [[Climate change]] ** [[Clean Power Plan]] * [[Immigration policy]] ** [[Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals]] ** [[Deferred Action for Parents of Americans]] ([[United States v. Texas|blocked]] by Supreme Court) * Social policy ** [[Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act]] ** [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act|Matthew Shepard Act]] ** [[Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010]] * [[United States Intelligence Community|Intelligence]] and [[Mass surveillance in the United States|surveillance]] policy ** [[Patriot Act]] extension (2011–2015) ** [[USA Freedom Act]] {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama|Timeline]] |- ! Congress ! Year |- | rowspan=2|[[111th United States Congress|111th]]{{Ref|timeline}} | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2009)|2009]] |- | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2010)|2010]] |- | rowspan=2|[[112th United States Congress|112th]] | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2011)|2011]] |- | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2012)|2012]] |- | rowspan=2|[[113th United States Congress|113th]] | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2013)|2013]] |- | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2014)|2014]] |- | rowspan=2|[[114th United States Congress|114th]] | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2015)|2015]] |- | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2016)|2016]] |- | rowspan=2|[[115th United States Congress|115th]]{{Ref|timeline}} | [[Timeline of the presidency of Barack Obama (2017)|2017]] |} '''Foreign policy actions''' * [[Free trade agreement]]s ** [[United States–Colombia Free Trade Agreement]] ** [[Panama–United States Trade Promotion Agreement]] ** [[South Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement]] ** [[Trans-Pacific Partnership]] (signed but not ratified) * [[Arms control]] ** [[New START]] * [[Climate change]] ** [[Paris Agreement]] * [[Iraq]] ** [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq]] ** [[American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)]] * [[Afghanistan]] ** [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)]] ** [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan|Partial withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan]] * Rapprochement with [[Cuba]] and [[Iran]] ** [[Cuban thaw]] ** [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action]] with Iran * Other military operations ** [[Drone strikes in Pakistan]] ** [[2011 military intervention in Libya]] ** [[Death of Osama bin Laden]] ** [[Military intervention against ISIL]] '''Supreme Court nominations''' * [[Sonia Sotomayor]] * [[Elena Kagan]] * [[Merrick Garland]] ([[Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination|not confirmed]]) ==2008 election== {{Hauptartikel|2008 United States presidential election}} {{further|2008 United States elections|Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign|2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries|2008 Democratic National Convention}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2008.svg|thumb|right|The 2008 electoral vote]] After winning election to represent the state of [[Illinois]] in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] in [[United States Senate election in Illinois, 2004|2004]], Obama announced that he would run for president in February 2007.<ref name="ChicagoTribune_Pearson_20070210">{{cite news|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-070210obama-pearson1-story,0,3768114.story |title=Obama: I'm running for president |work=Chicago Tribune |author=Pearson, Rick |author2=Long, Ray |date=February 10, 2007 |access-date=September 20, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813115846/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-070210obama-pearson1-story%2C0%2C3768114.story |archive-date=August 13, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2008|2008 Democratic primary]], Obama faced Senator and former [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Hillary Clinton]]. Several other candidates, including Senator [[Joe Biden]] of [[Delaware]] and former Senator [[John Edwards]], also ran for the nomination, but these candidates dropped out after the initial primaries. In June, on the day of the final primaries, Obama clinched the nomination by winning a majority of the delegates, including both pledged delegates and [[superdelegate]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/03/election.democrats/index.html|title=Obama: I will be the Democratic nominee|date=June 3, 2008|publisher=CNN|access-date=June 4, 2008}}</ref> Obama and Biden, whom Obama [[Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection, 2008|selected]] as his running mate, were nominated as the Democratic ticket at the August [[2008 Democratic National Convention]]. With Republican President [[George W. Bush]] term-limited, the Republicans nominated Senator [[John McCain]] of [[Arizona]] for the presidency. In the general election, Obama defeated McCain, taking 52.9% of the popular vote and 365 of the 538 [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral votes]]. In the Congressional elections, Democrats added to their majorities in both houses of Congress, and [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] [[Nancy Pelosi]] and [[United States Senate Majority Leader|Senate Majority Leader]] [[Harry Reid]] both remained in their posts. Republicans [[John Boehner]] and [[Mitch McConnell]] continued to serve as House Minority Leader and Senate Minority Leader, respectively. ==Transition period and inauguration== {{Hauptartikel|Presidential transition of Barack Obama|First inauguration of Barack Obama}} [[File:President Bush, Barack Obama walking.jpg|thumb|right|Outgoing President [[George W. Bush]] and President-elect Barack Obama on November 10, 2008]] The [[United States presidential transition|presidential transition]] period began following Obama's election to the presidency in November 2008, though Obama had chosen [[Chris Lu]] to begin planning for the transition in May 2008.<ref name="bermantransition">{{cite news|last1=Berman|first1=Russell|title=The Most Important Takeover of Any Organization in History|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/improving-the-presidential-transition-2016/477528/|access-date=August 19, 2016|publisher=The Atlantic|date=April 22, 2016}}</ref> [[John Podesta]], [[Valerie Jarrett]], and [[Pete Rouse]] co-chaired the Obama-Biden Transition Project. During the transition period, Obama announced nominations for his [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] and [[Executive Office of the President of the United States|administration]]. In November 2008, Congressman [[Rahm Emanuel]] accepted Obama's offer to serve as [[White House Chief of Staff]].<ref name=NYT_Baker_20081106>{{cite news | date=November 6, 2008 | access-date=December 17, 2008| last1=Baker| first1= Peter |last2=Zeleny| first2= Jeff| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/06/us/politics/06elect.html| title=For Obama, No Time to Bask in Victory As He Starts to Build a Transition Team| work=The New York Times}}</ref> Obama was [[United States presidential inauguration|inaugurated]] on January 20, 2009, succeeding [[George W. Bush]]. Obama officially assumed the presidency at 12:00 pm, [[Eastern Time Zone|EST]],<ref>{{cite web |author=United States Constitution|title=20th Amendment to the United States Constitution |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.amendmentxx.html |access-date=January 21, 2009}}</ref> and completed the [[oath of office of the president of the united states|oath of office]] at 12:05 pm, EST. He delivered his [[United States presidential inauguration#Inaugural address|inaugural address]] immediately following his oath.<ref>{{cite news |title=Obama Signs First Presidential Proclamation |date=January 20, 2009 |url=http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/01/20/obama-signs-first-presidential-proclamation/ |access-date=January 20, 2009 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> Obama's transition team was highly complimentary of the Bush administration's outgoing transition team, particularly with regards to national security, and some elements of the Bush-Obama transition were later codified into law.<ref name="bermantransition"/> ==Administration== {{Obama cabinet infobox}} ===Cabinet appointees=== {{Hauptartikel|Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet}} Following his inauguration, Obama and the Senate worked to confirm his nominees to the [[United States Cabinet]]. Three Cabinet-level officers did not require confirmation: Vice President [[Joe Biden]], who Obama had [[Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection, 2008|chosen]] as his running mate at the [[2008 Democratic National Convention]], Chief of Staff [[Rahm Emanuel]], and Defense Secretary [[Robert Gates]], who Obama chose to retain from the previous administration.<ref name=TheCaucus>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=99674016|title=The Obama Cabinet: Confirmations & Nominations|access-date=January 28, 2009|date=January 22, 2009|publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref> An early list of suggestions came from [[Michael Froman]], then an executive at [[Citigroup]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/137798/important-wikileaks-revelation-isnt-hillary-clinton|title=The Most Important WikiLeaks Revelation Isn't About Hillary Clinton: What John Podesta's emails from 2008 reveal about the way power works in the Democratic Party|first=David|last=Dayen|date=October 14, 2016|journal=The New Republic}}</ref> Obama described his Cabinet choices as a "[[team of rivals]]," and Obama chose several prominent public officials for Cabinet positions, including former [[Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2008|Democratic primary]] rival [[Hillary Clinton]] as Secretary of State.<ref name=syoungman>{{cite news|last1=Youngman|first1=Sam|title=Obama's 'team of rivals' Cabinet living out the president's 'no drama' mantra|url=http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/73689-obamas-team-of-rivals-following-no-drama-mantra|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=The Hill|date=December 28, 2009}}</ref> Obama nominated several former Clinton administration officials to the Cabinet and to other positions.<ref name=bsmith>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Ben|title=The Clinton band is back together|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2008/11/the-clinton-band-is-back-together-015617?o=1|access-date=November 20, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=November 14, 2008}}</ref> On April 28, 2009, the Senate confirmed former [[Governor of Kansas|Kansas governor]] [[Kathleen Sebelius]] as Secretary of Health and Human Services, completing Obama's initial Cabinet.<ref name="kamen sebelius">{{cite news|last1=Kamen|first1=Al|title=Just Inside 100 Days, Sebelius Completes the Cabinet|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/28/AR2009042803534.html|access-date=December 18, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=April 29, 2009}}</ref> During Obama's presidency, four Republicans [[List of United States political appointments across party lines|served]] in Obama's Cabinet: [[Ray LaHood]] as Secretary of Transportation, [[Robert A. McDonald|Robert McDonald]] as Secretary of Veterans Affairs, and Gates and [[Chuck Hagel]] as Secretaries of Defense. ===Notable non-Cabinet positions=== {{Siehe auch|Independent agencies of the United States government|White House Office}} * [[Counselor to the President]] ** '''[[Pete Rouse]]''' (2011–2014) ** '''[[John Podesta]]''' (2014–2015) * [[Senior Advisor to the President of the United States|Senior Advisor to the President]] ** '''[[Valerie Jarrett]]''' (2009–2017) ** '''[[Pete Rouse]]''' (2009–2010) ** '''[[David Axelrod (political consultant)|David Axelrod]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[David Plouffe]]''' (2011–2013) ** '''[[Daniel Pfeiffer]]''' (2013–2015) ** '''[[Brian Deese]]''' (2015–2017) ** '''[[Shailagh Murray]]''' (2015–2017) * [[White House Deputy Chief of Staff]] ** '''[[Jim Messina (political staffer)|Jim Messina]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[Mona Sutphen]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[Nancy-Ann DeParle]]''' (2011–2013) ** '''[[Alyssa Mastromonaco]]''' (2011–2014) ** '''[[Mark B. Childress]]''' (2012–2014) ** '''[[Rob Nabors]]''' (2013–2015) ** '''[[Anita Decker Breckenridge]]''' (2014–2017) ** '''[[Kristie Canegallo]]''' (2014–2017) * [[White House Press Secretary]] ** '''[[Robert Gibbs]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[Jay Carney]]''' (2011–2014) ** '''[[Josh Earnest]]''' (2014–2017) * [[White House Communications Director]] ** '''[[Ellen Moran]]''' (2009) ** '''[[Anita Dunn]]''' (2009) ** '''[[Daniel Pfeiffer]]''' (2009–2013) ** '''[[Jennifer Palmieri]]''' (2013–2015) ** '''[[Jen Psaki]]''' (2015–2017) * [[White House Counsel]] ** '''[[Greg Craig]]''' (2009–2010) ** '''[[Robert Bauer|Bob Bauer]]''' (2010–2011) ** '''[[Kathryn Ruemmler]]''' (2011–2014) ** '''[[Neil Eggleston]]''' (2014–2017) '''Security and international affairs''' * [[National Security Advisor (United States)|Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs]] ** '''[[James L. Jones]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[Thomas E. Donilon]]''' (2011–2013) ** '''[[Susan Rice]]''' (2013–2017) * Special envoy for [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] ** '''[[Richard Holbrooke]]''' (2009–2010) ** '''[[Marc Grossman]]''' (2011–2012) ** '''[[James Dobbins (diplomat)|James Dobbins]]''' (2013–2014) ** '''[[Daniel F. Feldman]]''' (2014–2017) * Special envoy to the Middle East ** '''[[George J. Mitchell]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[David Hale (diplomat)|David Hale]]''' (2011–2013) ** '''[[Martin Indyk]]''' (2013–2014) ** '''[[Frank Lowenstein]]''' (2014–2017) * [[Director of National Intelligence]] ** '''[[Dennis C. Blair]]''' (2009–2010) ** '''[[David Gompert]]''' (''acting'', 2010) ** '''[[James Clapper]]''' (2010–2017) * [[Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation]] ** '''[[Robert Mueller]]''' (2001–2013)† ** '''[[James Comey]]''' (2013–2017) * [[Director of the Central Intelligence Agency]] ** '''[[Leon Panetta]]''' (2009–2011) ** '''[[Michael Morell]]''' (''acting'', 2011) ** '''[[David Petraeus]]''' (2011–2012) ** '''[[Michael Morell]]''' (''acting'', 2013) ** '''[[John Brennan (CIA officer)|John Brennan]]''' (2013–2017) '''Economic affairs''' * Assistant to the President for Economic Policy and Director of [[United States National Economic Council|National Economic Council]] ** '''[[Lawrence Summers]]''' (2009–2010) ** '''[[Gene Sperling]]''' (2011–2014) ** '''[[Jeffrey Zients]]''' (2014–2017) * Chair of the [[Economic Recovery Advisory Board]] ** '''[[Paul Volcker]]''' (2009–2011) ** ''Replaced by [[President's Economic Recovery Advisory Board|Council on Jobs and Competitiveness]] in 2011'' * Chairperson of the [[President's Economic Recovery Advisory Board|Council on Jobs and Competitiveness]] ** '''[[Jeffrey R. Immelt]]''' (2011–2017) * [[Federal Reserve Board of Governors]] ** '''[[Ben Bernanke]]''', Chair (2006–2014)‡ ** '''[[Daniel Tarullo]]''' (2009–2017) ** '''[[Janet Yellen]]''' (2010–2018), Chair (2014–2018) ** '''[[Sarah Bloom Raskin]]''' (2010–2014) ** '''[[Jerome Powell]]''' (2012–present), Chair (2018–present) ** '''[[Jeremy C. Stein]]''' (2012–2014) ** '''[[Stanley Fischer]]''' (2014–2017) ** '''[[Lael Brainard]]''' (2014–present) * Chair of the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] ** '''[[Sheila Bair]]''' (2006–2011)† ** '''[[Martin J. Gruenberg]]''' (2011–2018) * Chair of the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] ** '''[[Mary Schapiro]]''' (2009–2012) ** '''[[Elisse B. Walter]]''' (2012–2013) ** '''[[Mary Jo White]]''' (2013–2017) †Appointed by President Bush ‡Originally appointed by President Bush, reappointed by President Obama ===Judicial nominees=== ====United States Supreme Court==== {{Hauptartikel|Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates}} [[File:Obama and Sotomayor.jpg|thumb|Obama and Supreme Court nominee [[Sonia Sotomayor]]]] [[File:Obama signing Kagan's commission.jpg|thumb|Obama signs the commission of [[Elena Kagan]]]] There were three vacancies on the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] during Obama's tenure, but Obama made only two successful Supreme court appointments. During the [[111th United States Congress|111th Congress]], when Democrats held a majority in the Senate, Obama successfully nominated two Supreme Court Justices: * '''[[Sonia Sotomayor]]''', replacing [[David Souter]]{{spaced ndash}}[[Sonia Sotomayor Supreme Court nomination|2009]] * '''[[Elena Kagan]]''', replacing [[John Paul Stevens]]{{spaced ndash}}[[Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination|2010]] Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] died in February 2016, during the [[114th United States Congress|114th Congress]], which had a Republican majority in the Senate. In March 2016, Obama [[Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination|nominated]] Chief Judge [[Merrick Garland]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] to fill Scalia's seat.<ref name="kamita"/> However, Senate Majority Leader [[Mitch McConnell]], [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Judiciary Committee]] Chair [[Chuck Grassley]], and other Senate Republicans argued that Supreme Court nominations should not be made during a presidential election year, and that the winner of the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]] should instead appoint Scalia's replacement.<ref name="kamita">{{cite news|last1=Kelly|first1=Amita|title=McConnell: Blocking Supreme Court Nomination 'About A Principle, Not A Person'|url=https://www.npr.org/2016/03/16/470664561/mcconnell-blocking-supreme-court-nomination-about-a-principle-not-a-person|access-date=March 18, 2016|publisher=NPR|date=March 16, 2016}}</ref><ref name="mshearsca">{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|title=More Republicans Say They'll Block Supreme Court Nominee|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/16/us/politics/more-republicans-say-theyll-block-supreme-court-nomination.html|access-date=February 16, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> Garland's nomination remained before the Senate for longer than any other Supreme Court nomination in history,<ref name="lhurley">{{cite news|last1=Hurley|first1=Lawrence|title=Supreme Court nominee out in cold as election heats up|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-garland-idUSKCN0ZZ17L|access-date=July 19, 2016|publisher=Reuters|date=July 19, 2016}}</ref> and the nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress.<ref name=jbravin1>{{cite news |first=Jess |last=Bravin |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/president-obamas-supreme-court-nomination-of-merrick-garland-expires-1483463952 |title=President Obama's Supreme Court Nomination of Merrick Garland Expires |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=January 3, 2017 }}</ref> President Donald Trump later nominated [[Neil Gorsuch]] to Scalia's former seat on the Supreme Court, and [[Neil Gorsuch Supreme Court nomination|Gorsuch was confirmed by the Senate]] in April 2017. ====Other courts==== {{Further|List of federal judges appointed by Barack Obama|Barack Obama judicial appointment controversies}} {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ [[United States federal judge|Article III]] judicial appointments<ref>{{cite web|title=Judgeship Appointments By President|url=http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/authorized-judgeships/judgeship-appointments-president|publisher=United States Courts|access-date=January 19, 2017}} Includes only confirmed nominees. The "other courts" row consists of [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|USCAFC]] and [[United States Court of International Trade|Court of International Trade]] confirmations.</ref> ! !Clinton !Bush !Obama |- !Supreme Court |2 |2 |2 |- ![[United States courts of appeals|Appellate courts]] |62 |61 |49 |- ![[United States district court|District courts]] |306 |263 |270 |- !Other courts |9 |4 |10 |} Obama's presidency saw the continuation of battles between both parties over the confirmation of [[United States federal judge|judicial]] nominees. Democrats continually accused Republicans of stalling nominees throughout Obama's tenure.<ref name=toobin1/> After several nomination battles, Senate Democrats in 2013 reformed the use of the [[Filibuster in the United States Senate|filibuster]] so that it could no longer be used on executive or judicial nominations (excluding the Supreme Court).<ref name=tmccarthy>{{cite news|last1=McCarthy|first1=Tom|title=Senate approves change to filibuster rule after repeated Republican blocks|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/21/harry-reid-senate-rules-republican-filibusters-nominations|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Guardian|date=November 21, 2013}}</ref> Republicans took over the Senate after the [[2014 United States elections|2014 elections]], giving them the power to block any judicial nominee,<ref name=everett1/> and the 114th Congress confirmed just 20 judicial nominees, the lowest number of confirmations since the [[82nd United States Congress|82nd Congress]].<ref name="minkimjudges">{{cite news|last1=Min Kim|first1=Seung|title=McConnell's historic judge blockade|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/mitch-mcconnell-judges-225455|access-date=November 17, 2016|publisher=Politico|date=July 14, 2016}}</ref> Obama's judicial nominees were significantly more diverse than those of previous administrations, with more appointments going to women and minorities.<ref name=toobin1>{{cite news|last1=Toobin|first1=Jeffrey|title=The Obama Brief|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/10/27/obama-brief|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New Yorker|date=October 27, 2014}}</ref> ==First 100 days== {{Hauptartikel|First 100 days of Barack Obama's presidency}} {{listen |title=Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) |filename=Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) - Barack Obama (WhiteHouse.gov).ogv |description =The [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]] was a focal point of [[Barack Obama]]'s February 24, [[Barack Obama speech to joint session of Congress, February 2009|2009 Address Before a Joint Session of Congress]]. |title2=Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) (audio) |filename2=Address Before a Joint Session of Congress (February 24, 2009) Barack Obama.ogg |description2=Audio-only version |image={{multiple image  | align =  | direction = vertical | width = 220 | image1 = Barack Obama signs American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 on February 17.jpg | width1 = | alt1 = | caption1 = President Obama signs the ARRA into law on February 17, 2009 in [[Denver|Denver, Colorado]]. Vice President [[Joe Biden]] stands behind him. | image2 = Barack Obama addresses joint session of Congress 2009-02-24.jpg | width2 = | alt2 = | caption2 = Obama addresses a joint session of Congress, with Vice President [[Joe Biden]] and [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Nancy Pelosi]]. }} | format = [[Ogg]] | type = speech }} Within minutes of taking the [[oath of office]] on January 20, Obama's Chief of Staff, [[Rahm Emanuel]], issued an order suspending last-minute regulations and [[executive order]]s signed by his predecessor, [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|title=Obama halts all regulations pending review|date=January 20, 2009|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/28758810|access-date=January 21, 2009|work=NBC News }}</ref> Some of the first actions of Obama's presidency focused on reversing measures taken by the Bush administration following the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref name="shearlegacy">{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|title=Threat to Legacy Gives Obama Powerful Motive to Stump for Hillary Clinton|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/27/us/politics/obama-legacy.html|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=July 27, 2016}}</ref> In his first week in office, Obama signed [[Executive Order 13492]] suspending all ongoing proceedings of the [[Guantanamo military commission]]s and ordering the Guantanamo detention facility to be shut down within the year.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/us/politics/22gitmo.html|title=Obama Issues Directive to Shut Down Guantánamo|date=January 21, 2009|work=The New York Times | first1=Mark | last1=Mazzetti | first2=William | last2=Glaberson | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> Another order, [[Executive Order 13491]], banned torture and other coercive techniques, such as [[waterboarding]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/23/us/politics/23obama.html |title=Obama Reverses Key Bush Security Policies |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 22, 2009 }}</ref> Obama also issued an executive order placing tighter restrictions on lobbying in the White House,<ref name=EthicsOrder>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrder-EthicsCommitments |title=Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Personnel |access-date=January 22, 2009 |publisher=The White House |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623185411/http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrder-EthicsCommitments |archive-date=June 23, 2013 }}</ref> and rescinded the [[Mexico City Policy]], which banned federal grants to international groups that provide abortion services or counseling.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tapper|first1=Jake|last2=Miller|first2=Sunlen|last3=Khan|first3=Huma|title=Obama Overturns Mexico City Policy Implemented by Reagan|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/International/obama-overturns-mexico-city-policy-implemented-reagan/story?id=6716958|access-date=February 12, 2017|work=ABC News|date=January 23, 2009}}</ref> On January 29, Obama signed a bill for the first time in his presidency; the [[Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009]] revised the [[statute of limitations]] for filing [[pay discrimination]] lawsuits.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2009/01/29/a-wonderful-day |title=A Wonderful Day|access-date=January 29, 2009|via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |date=January 29, 2009}}</ref> On February 3, he signed the [[Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act]] (CHIP), expanding CHIP's health care coverage from 7 million children to 11 million children.<ref>{{cite web|author=Macon Phillips |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog_post/chip/ |title=CHIP |date=April 1, 2013 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> On March 9, 2009, Obama lifted restrictions on federal funding of [[Embryonic stem cell|embryonic stem cell research]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Sheryl|last=Stolberg|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/10/us/politics/10stem.html |title=Obama Lifts Bush's Strict Limits on Stem Cell Research|work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2009|access-date=March 17, 2009}}</ref> Obama stated that, like Bush, he would employ [[signing statement]]s if he deems a portion of a bill to be unconstitutional,<ref>{{cite news |first=Charlie|last=Savage|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/10/us/politics/10signing.html |title=Obama Looks to Limit Impact of Tactic Bush Used to Sidestep New Laws|work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2009|access-date=March 17, 2009}}</ref> and he subsequently issued several signing statements.<ref>{{cite news | last = Savage | first = Charlie | title = A Bill Signing, With Reservations |work=The New York Times | date = June 27, 2009 | url = http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/26/a-bill-signing-with-reservations/ | access-date = June 27, 2009}} </ref> Obama also signed the [[Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009]], which added {{convert|2|e6acre|km2}} of land to the [[National Wilderness Preservation System]],<ref name="landmanagement">{{cite news|title=Obama signs sweeping public land reform legislation|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/03/30/obama.lands.bill/|access-date=July 22, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=March 30, 2009}}</ref> as well as a law raising the cigarette pack tax by 62 cents ({{Inflation|US|0.62|2009|r=2|fmt=eq}}).<ref name="tobacco">{{Cite news|title=PROMISES, PROMISES: Obama tax pledge up in smoke |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2008961613_apobamataxpromise.html|date=April 1, 2009|work=[[The Seattle Times]]|series=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=May 24, 2011 |first=Calvin |last=Woodward}}</ref> Perhaps the most important action of Obama's first 100 days<ref>(according to whom?)</ref> was the passage of the [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|American Recovery and Reinvestment Act]] (ARRA) to address the [[Great Recession]]. After much debate, ARRA was passed by both the House and Senate on February 13, 2009. Originally intended to be a [[bipartisan]] bill, Congressional passage of the bill relied largely on Democratic votes, though three Republican Senators did vote for it.<ref name="grchad"/> The lack of Republican support for the bill, and the inability of Democrats to win that support, foreshadowed the gridlock and partisanship that continued throughout Obama's presidency.<ref name="grchad">{{cite news|last1=Chaddock|first1=Gail Russell|title=USA POLITICS Obama wins his economic stimulus package, but without the bipartisanship he sought|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2009/0214/obama-wins-his-economic-stimulus-package-but-without-the-bipartisanship-he-sought|access-date=February 19, 2016|publisher=Christian Science Monitor|date=February 14, 2009}}</ref><ref name="mgrunstim">{{cite news|last1=Grunwald|first1=Michael|title=The Party of No: New Details on the GOP Plot to Obstruct Obama|url=http://swampland.time.com/2012/08/23/the-party-of-no-new-details-on-the-gop-plot-to-obstruct-obama/|access-date=February 19, 2016|publisher=Time|date=August 23, 2012}}</ref><ref name="obamamemos">{{cite news|last1=Lizza|first1=Ryan|title=The Obama Memos|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/01/30/the-obama-memos|access-date=February 19, 2016|publisher=New Yorker|date=January 30, 2012}}</ref> The $787 billion bill combined tax breaks with spending on infrastructure projects, extension of welfare benefits, and education.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sahadi |first=Jeanne |url=https://money.cnn.com/2009/01/27/news/economy/stimulus_spending |title=Stimulus with interest: $1.2 trillion |publisher=CNN |date=January 27, 2009 |access-date=April 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sahadi |first=Jeanne |url=https://money.cnn.com/2009/02/17/news/economy/obama_stimulus_meas_success/index.htm |title=Stimulus: Now for the hard part |publisher=CNN |date=February 17, 2009 |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> ==Domestic affairs== {{Siehe auch|Barack Obama social policy}} ===Health care reform=== {{Siehe auch|Health care reform in the United States|Health care reforms proposed during the Obama administration}} {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; |+ Major votes in the [[111th United States Congress|111th Congress]]<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news|last1=Lerer|first1=Lisa|title=No Congress Since 1960s Has Impact on Public as 111th|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-12-22/no-congress-since-1960s-makes-most-laws-for-americans-as-111th|access-date=April 20, 2016|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=December 22, 2010}} The first number indicates the members of Congress voting for the bill, and the second indicates the members of Congress voting against the bill. The "Senate Democrat" column includes independents caucusing with the Democrats. Bills that passed are shaded green.</ref> |- ! ! colspan=2 | Senate ! colspan=2 | House |- ! Bill/Treaty ! {{party shading/Democratic}}| Dem. ! {{party shading/Republican}}| Rep. ! {{party shading/Democratic}}| Dem. ! {{party shading/Republican}}| Rep. |- |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|ARRA]] | 58–0 | 3–37 | 244–11 | 0–177 |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act|ACA]] | 60–0 | 0–39 | 219–34 | 0–178 |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act|D-F]] | 57–1 | 3–35 | 234–19 | 3–173 |- ! [[American Clean Energy and Security Act|ACES]] | colspan=2 | ''No vote'' | 211–44 | 8–168 |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010|DADTRA]] | 57–0 | 8–31 | 235–15 | 15–160 |- ! [[DREAM Act#2010|DREAM]] | 52–5 | 3–36 | 208–38 | 8–160 |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[New START]] | 58–0 | 13–26 | colspan=2 | ''No vote ([[Treaty Clause|treaty]])'' |- ! {{party shading/Greenback}} | [[Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010|2010 TA]] | 44–14 | 37–5 | 139–112 | 138–36 |} Once the stimulus bill was enacted in February 2009, health care reform became Obama's top domestic priority, and the 111th Congress passed a major bill that eventually became widely known as "[[Obamacare]]." [[Health care reform debate in the United States|Health care reform]] had long been a top priority of the Democratic Party, and Democrats were eager to implement a new plan that would lower costs and increase coverage.<ref name=sack>{{cite news|last1=Sack|first1=Kevin|title=Health Plan From Obama Spurs Debate|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/23/us/23health.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 23, 2008}}</ref> In contrast to [[Clinton health care plan of 1993|Bill Clinton's 1993 plan]] to reform health care, Obama adopted a strategy of letting Congress drive the process, with the House and Senate writing their own bills.<ref name=nornstein/> In the Senate, a bipartisan group of Senators on the [[United States Senate Committee on Finance|Finance Committee]] known as the '''[[Gang of Six#Health care, 2009|Gang of Six]]''' began meeting with the hope of creating a bipartisan healthcare reform bill,<ref name=herzhc>{{cite news|last1=Herszenhorn|first1=David|title=Health Policy Is Carved Out at Table for 6|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/us/politics/28baucus.html|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 27, 2009}}</ref> even though the Republican Senators involved with the crafting of the bill ultimately came to oppose it.<ref name=nornstein>{{cite news|last1=Ornstein|first1=Norm|title=The Real Story of Obamacare's Birth|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/07/the-real-story-of-obamacares-birth/397742/|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The Atlantic|date=July 6, 2015}}</ref> In November 2009, the House passed the [[Affordable Health Care for America Act]] on a 220–215 vote, with only one Republican voting for the bill.<ref name="reuterstimeline">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62L0JA20100322|work=Reuters|title=Timeline: Milestones in Obama's quest for healthcare reform|access-date=March 22, 2010|date=March 22, 2010}}</ref> In December 2009, the Senate passed its own health care reform bill, the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] (PPACA or ACA), on a party-line, 60–39 vote.<ref name=Murray2>{{cite news|last1=Murray|first1=Shailagh|title=Senate passes health-care bill, now must reconcile it with House|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/24/AR2009122400662.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=December 25, 2009}}</ref> Both bills expanded [[Medicaid]] and provided health care subsidies; they also established an [[Health insurance mandate#History|individual mandate]], [[health insurance exchange]]s, and a ban on denying coverage based on [[pre-existing condition]]s.<ref name=pgrier>{{cite news|last1=Grier|first1=Peter|title=Three big differences between House and Senate healthcare bills|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2009/1221/Three-big-differences-between-House-and-Senate-healthcare-bills|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=December 3, 2009}}</ref> However, the House bill included a tax increase on families making more than $1 million per year and a [[public health insurance option]], while the Senate plan included an excise tax on [[Cadillac insurance plan|high-cost health plans]].<ref name=pgrier/> The [[United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010|2010 Massachusetts Senate special election]] victory of [[Scott Brown (politician)|Scott Brown]] seriously imperiled the prospects of a health care reform bill, as Democrats lost their [[Filibuster in the United States Senate|60-seat Senate super-majority]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2010/03/obama-not-worried-about-procedural-rules-like-deem-and-pass-for-health-care.html |title=Obama Not Worried About 'Procedural Rules' like "Deem and Pass" for Health Care – Political Punch |work=ABC News |date=March 17, 2010 |access-date=December 18, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/17/AR2010031704184.html | work=The Washington Post | title=Democrats yet to decide on health-care bill bear the weight of Washington | first1=Sandhya | last1=Somashekhar | first2=Paul | last2=Kane | date=March 18, 2010 | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> The White House and House Speaker [[Nancy Pelosi]] engaged in an extensive campaign to convince both centrists and liberals in the House to pass the Senate's health care bill, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.<ref name="bcusack"/> In March 2010, after Obama announced an executive order reinforcing the current law against spending federal funds for elective abortion services,<ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan|last=Chait|url=https://newrepublic.com/blog/jonathan-chait/stupak-makes-deal-reform-pass|title=Stupak Makes A Deal, Reform To Pass|work=The New Republic|date=March 21, 2010}}</ref> the House passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.<ref name=housepassesaca>{{cite news|last1=Murray|first1=Shailagh|title=House passes health-care reform bill without Republican votes|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/21/AR2010032100943.html|access-date=December 17, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=March 22, 2010}}</ref> The bill, which had passed the Senate in December 2009, did not receive a single Republican vote in either house.<ref name=housepassesaca/> On March 23, 2010, President Obama signed the PPACA into law.<ref name=sgstolberg>{{cite news|last1=Gay Stolberg|first1=Sheryl|title=Obama Signs Health Care Overhaul Bill, With a Flourish|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/health/policy/24health.html|access-date=December 17, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=March 23, 2010}}</ref> The ''New York Times'' described the PPACA as "the most expansive social legislation enacted in decades,"<ref name=sgstolberg/> while the ''Washington Post'' noted that it was the biggest expansion of health insurance coverage since the creation of [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]] in 1965.<ref name=housepassesaca/> Both houses of Congress also passed a [[Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010|reconciliation measure]] to make significant changes and corrections to the PPACA; this second bill was signed into law on March 30, 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wusa9.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=99102|title=Congress Passes Final Tweaking to Health Reform Bill|author=David Beardsley|date=March 25, 2010|work=[[WUSA (TV)|WUSA]]|access-date=May 14, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130232346/http://www.wusa9.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=99102|archive-date=January 30, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704094104575143603431943646|title=Congress Approves Final Health Overhaul|author=Gregg Hitt|date=March 25, 2010|work=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=May 14, 2012}}</ref> The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act became widely known as the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or "Obamacare."<ref name=Obamacare>{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Peter|title=Democrats Embrace Once Pejorative 'Obamacare' Tag|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/04/health/policy/democrats-embrace-once-pejorative-obamacare-tag.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 3, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Percentage of Individuals in the United States Without Health Insurance, 1963-2015.png|thumb|Percentage of Individuals in the United States without Health Insurance, 1963–2015 (Source: [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]])<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Obama|first1=Barack|title=United States Health Care Reform|journal=JAMA|date=August 2, 2016|volume=316|issue=5|pages=525–532|doi=10.1001/jama.2016.9797|pmid=27400401|issn=0098-7484|pmc=5069435}}</ref>]] The Affordable Care Act faced considerable challenges and opposition after its passage, and Republicans continually attempted to repeal the law.<ref name=raju>{{cite news|last1=Raju|first1=Manu|title=OBAMACARE GOP lawmakers: Time to move on from Obamacare repeal|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/06/gop-lawmakers-time-to-move-on-from-obamacare-repeal-119439|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=June 25, 2015}}</ref> The law also survived two major challenges that went to the Supreme Court.<ref name=eilroberts>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|title=Legacies of Obama presidency and Roberts court are forever intertwined|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-and-roberts-supreme-court-ruling-further-entwines-two-legacies/2015/06/25/b389f522-1b44-11e5-bd7f-4611a60dd8e5_story.html|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=June 25, 2015}}</ref> In [[National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius]], a 5-4 majority upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act, even though it made state [[Medicaid]] expansion voluntary. In [[King v. Burwell]], a 6-3 majority allowed the use of [[tax credit]]s in state-operated exchanges. The October 2013 launch of [[HealthCare.gov]], a health insurance exchange website created under the provisions of the ACA, was widely criticized,<ref name="mo'brien">{{cite news|last1=O'Brien|first1=Michael|title=Website mess gives fuel to Obamacare critics|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/website-mess-gives-fuel-obamacare-critics-f8C11434916|access-date=November 16, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=October 21, 2013}}</ref> even though many of the problems were fixed by the end of the year.<ref name=eilperin6>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|title=Jeff Zients helped salvage HealthCare.gov. Now he'll be Obama's go-to guy on economy.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/jeff-zients-helped-salvage-healthcaregov-now-hell-be-obamas-go-to-guy-on-economy/2013/12/22/3ebf38a4-6986-11e3-8b5b-a77187b716a3_story.html|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=December 22, 2013}}</ref> The number of [[Health insurance coverage in the United States|uninsured]] Americans dropped from 20.2% of the population in 2010 to 13.3% of the population in 2015,<ref name=ungar>{{cite news|last1=Ungar|first1=Laura|title=Uninsured rates drop dramatically under Obamacare|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/03/16/uninsured-rates-drop-sharply-under-obamacare/24852325/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=USA Today|date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> though Republicans continued to oppose Obamacare as an unwelcome expansion of government.<ref name=rpear>{{cite news|last1=Pear|first1=Robert|title=House G.O.P. Again Votes to Repeal Health Care Law|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/us/politics/house-gop-again-votes-to-repeal-health-care-law.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=February 3, 2015}}</ref> Many liberals continued to push for a [[single-payer healthcare]] system or a public option,<ref name="bcusack">{{cite news|last1=Cusack|first1=Bob|title=The chaotic fight for ObamaCare|url=http://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/268877-the-chaotic-fight-for-obamacare|access-date=February 10, 2016|work=The Hill|date=February 10, 2016}}</ref> and Obama endorsed the latter proposal, as well as an expansion of health insurance tax credits, in 2016.<ref name="mrhodan2">{{cite news|last1=Rhodan|first1=Maya|title=President Obama Explains How He Wants to Fix Obamacare in Speech at Florida College|url=http://time.com/4539092/president-obama-obamacare-miami-dade-college-florida/|access-date=October 20, 2016|publisher=Time|date=October 20, 2016}}</ref> ===Wall Street reform=== {{Siehe auch|Banking in the United States}} Risky practices among the major financial institutions on [[Wall Street]] were widely seen as contributing to the [[subprime mortgage crisis]], the [[financial crisis of 2007–08]], and the subsequent [[Great Recession]], so Obama made [[Wall Street reform]] a priority in his first term.<ref name=sorkin>{{cite news|last1=Sorkin|first1=Andrew Ross|title=A Tough Crowd on Wall Street|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/15/business/15sorkin.html?ref=businessspecial4|access-date=December 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=September 14, 2009}}</ref> On July 21, 2010, Obama signed the [[Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act]], the largest financial regulatory overhaul since the [[New Deal]].<ref name=doddfrank>{{cite news |last= Censky|first=Annalyn|title=Obama on new law: 'No more taxpayer bailouts' |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/21/news/economy/obama_signs_wall_street_reform_bill/index.htm|date=July 21, 2010|access-date=July 22, 2010 | publisher=CNN}}</ref> The act increased regulation and reporting requirements on [[derivative (finance)|derivatives]] (particularly [[credit default swap]]s), and took steps to limit [[systemic risk]]s to the US economy with policies such as higher [[capital requirement]]s, the creation of the [[Orderly Liquidation Authority]] to help wind down large, failing financial institutions, and the creation of the [[Financial Stability Oversight Council]] to monitor systemic risks.<ref name=konczal>{{cite news|last1=Konczal|first1=Mike|title=Dodd-Frank turns 5 today — it's Obama's most underappreciated achievement|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/7/21/9004155/dodd-frank-explainer|access-date=December 14, 2015|publisher=Vox|date=July 21, 2015}}</ref> Dodd-Frank also established the [[Consumer Financial Protection Bureau]], which was charged with protecting consumers against abusive financial practices.<ref name=jcalmes15112015>{{cite news|last1=Calmes|first1=Jackie|title=Obama Picks Warren to Set Up Consumer Bureau|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/18/us/politics/18warren.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=September 17, 2010}}</ref> On signing the bill, Obama stated that the bill would "empower consumers and investors," "bring the shadowy deals that caused the crisis to the light of day," and "put a stop to taxpayer bailouts once and for all."<ref name=bdennis>{{cite news|last1=Dennis|first1=Brady|title=Obama signs financial overhaul into law|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/21/AR2010072100512.html|access-date=December 14, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=July 22, 2010}}</ref> Some liberals were disappointed that the law did not break up the country's largest banks or reinstate the [[Glass-Steagall Act]], while many conservatives criticized the bill as a government overreach that could make the country less competitive.<ref name=bdennis /> Under the bill, the Federal Reserve and other regulatory agencies were required to propose and implement several new [[rulemaking|regulatory rules]], and battles over these rules continued throughout Obama's presidency.<ref name=bintelligence>{{cite news|last1=Dean|first1=Nathan|title=Dodd-Frank at five years: Several key rules remain|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/professional/blog/dodd-frank-at-five-years-several-key-rules-remain/|access-date=December 4, 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=July 21, 2015}}</ref> Obama called for further Wall Street reform after the passage of Dodd-Frank, saying that banks should have a smaller role in the economy and less incentive to make risky trades.<ref name="goldfarb1">{{cite news|last1=Goldfarb|first1=Zachary|title=President Obama sounds ready to take on the big banks|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2014/07/02/president-obama-sounds-ready-to-take-on-the-big-banks/|access-date=August 2, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=July 2, 2014}}</ref> Obama also signed the [[Credit CARD Act of 2009]], which created new rules for credit card companies.<ref name=cardact>{{cite news|title=Obama signs new rules for credit cards into law|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/30884011/ns/business-personal_finance/t/obama-signs-new-rules-credit-cards-law/|access-date=November 14, 2015|agency=Associated Press|publisher=NBC|date=May 22, 2009}}</ref> ===Climate change and the environment=== {{Siehe auch|Environmental policy of the United States|Marine policy of the Barack Obama administration}} During his presidency, Obama described [[global warming]] as the greatest [[Global catastrophic risk|long-term threat]] facing the world.<ref name="trendsareterrifying">{{cite news|last1=Hirschfield Davis|first1=Julie|last2=Landler|first2=Mark|last3=Davenport|first3=Coral|title=Obama on Climate Change: The Trends Are 'Terrifying'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/08/us/politics/obama-climate-change.html|access-date=September 9, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 8, 2016}}</ref> Obama took several steps to combat global warming, but was unable to pass a major bill addressing the issue, in part because many Republicans and some Democrats [[Climate change denial|questioned]] whether global warming is occurring and whether human activity contributes to it.<ref name=rglobalwarming>{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Coral|title=Many Conservative Republicans Believe Climate Change Is a Real Threat|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/29/us/politics/survey-of-republican-voters-shows-a-majority-believe-in-climate-change.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=September 28, 2015}}</ref> Following his inauguration, Obama asked that Congress pass a bill to put a [[Emissions trading|cap]] on domestic carbon emissions.<ref name=lizza1/> After the House passed the [[American Clean Energy and Security Act]] in 2009, Obama sought to convince the Senate to pass the bill as well.<ref name=ACES1>{{cite news|last1=AP|title=Obama implores Senate to pass climate bill|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/31565446/ns/us_news-environment/t/obama-implores-senate-pass-climate-bill/|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=June 27, 2009}}</ref> The legislation would have required the US to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 17 percent by 2020 and by 83 percent by the middle of the 21st century.<ref name=ACES1/> However, the bill was strongly opposed by Republicans and neither it nor a separate proposed bipartisan compromise<ref name=lizza1>{{cite news|last1=Lizza|first1=Ryan|title=As the World Burns|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/10/11/as-the-world-burns|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New Yorker|date=October 11, 2010}}</ref> ever came up for a vote in the Senate.<ref name=walsh>{{cite news|last1=Walsh|first1=Bryan|title=Why the Climate Bill Died|url=http://science.time.com/2010/07/26/why-the-climate-bill-died/|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=Time|date=July 26, 2010}}</ref> In 2013, Obama announced that he would bypass Congress by ordering the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] to implement new carbon emissions limits.<ref name=eilperin2>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|title=Obama unveils ambitious agenda to combat climate change, bypassing Congress|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-climate-strategy-represents-piecemeal-approach/2013/06/25/7bd9f20a-dd0a-11e2-bd83-e99e43c336ed_story.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=June 25, 2013}}</ref> The [[Clean Power Plan]], unveiled in 2015, seeks to reduce US greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28 percent by 2025.<ref name=davenport>{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Carol|title=Obama's Strategy on Climate Change, Part of Global Deal, Is Revealed|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/01/us/obama-to-offer-major-blueprint-on-climate-change.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=March 31, 2015}}</ref> Obama also imposed regulations on soot, sulfur, and mercury that encouraged a transition away from [[coal]] as an energy source, but the falling price of wind, solar, and [[natural gas]] energy sources also contributed to coal's decline.<ref name=mgrunwald/> Obama encouraged this successful transition away from coal in large part due to the fact that coal emits more carbon than other sources of power, including natural gas.<ref name=mgrunwald>{{cite news|last1=Grunwald|first1=Michael|title=Inside the war on coal|url=http://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2015/05/inside-war-on-coal-000002|access-date=November 16, 2015|publisher=Politico}}</ref> Obama's campaign to fight global warming found more success at the international level than in Congress. Obama attended the [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]], which drafted the non-binding [[Copenhagen Accord]] as a successor to the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. The deal provided for the [[Carbon emissions reporting|monitoring]] of [[carbon emissions]] among [[developing countries]], but it did not include Obama's proposal to commit to cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2050.<ref name=eilperin1>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/18/AR2009121800637.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|title=Climate deal falls short of key goals|work=The Washington Post|date=December 19, 2009}}</ref> In 2014, Obama reached an agreement with China in which China pledged to reach peak carbon emission levels by 2030, while the US pledged to cut its emissions by 26-28 percent compared to its 2005 levels.<ref name=mlandler2>{{cite news|last1=Landler|first1=Mark|title=U.S. and China Reach Climate Accord After Months of Talks|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/12/world/asia/china-us-xi-obama-apec.html|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=November 11, 2014}}</ref> The deal provided momentum for a potential multilateral global warming agreement among the world's largest carbon emitters.<ref name=cdavenport2>{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Coral|title=Global Climate Pact Gains Momentum as China, U.S. and Brazil Detail Plans|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/01/world/americas/us-and-brazil-agree-on-climate-change-actions.html|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 30, 2015}}</ref> Many Republicans criticized Obama's climate goals as a potential drain on the economy.<ref name=cdavenport2/><ref name=arestuccia>{{cite news|last1=Restuccia|first1=Andrew|title=GOP to attack climate pact at home and abroad|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/09/gop-congress-climate-pact-paris-213382|access-date=November 16, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=September 7, 2015}}</ref> At the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference]], nearly every country in the world agreed to a landmark climate deal in which each nation committed lowering their greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name=parisdeal>{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Coral|title=Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/world/europe/climate-change-accord-paris.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 12, 2015}}</ref><ref name=smufson>{{cite news|last1=Mufson|first1=Steven|title=Paris accord is a big win for Obama, even as climate dangers still loom|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/paris-accord-is-a-big-win-for-obama-even-as-climate-dangers-still-loom/2015/12/12/bd6c5758-a044-11e5-8728-1af6af208198_story.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=December 12, 2015}}</ref> The [[Paris Agreement]] created a universal accounting system for emissions, required each country to monitor its emissions, and required each country to create a plan to reduce its emissions.<ref name=parisdeal/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Milkoreit|first=Manjana|date=2019|title=The Paris Agreement on Climate Change—Made in USA?|journal=Perspectives on Politics|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=1019–1037|doi=10.1017/S1537592719000951|issn=1537-5927|doi-access=free}}</ref> Several climate negotiators noted that the US-China climate deal and the EPA's emission limits helped make the deal possible.<ref name=parisdeal/> In 2016, the international community agreed to the Kigali accord, an amendment to the [[Montreal Protocol]] which sought to reduce the use of [[hydrofluorocarbons|HFCs]], organic compounds that contribute to global warming.<ref name="kigali">{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Coral|title=Nations, Fighting Powerful Refrigerant That Warms Planet, Reach Landmark Deal|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/15/world/africa/kigali-deal-hfc-air-conditioners.html|access-date=October 17, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=October 15, 2016}}</ref> From the beginning of his presidency, Obama took several actions to raise [[Fuel economy in automobiles|vehicle fuel efficiency]] in the United States. In 2009, Obama announced a plan to increase the [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] to {{convert|35|mpgUS|l/100km}}], a 40 percent increase from 2009 levels.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/19/business/19emissions.html | work=The New York Times | title=Obama to Toughen Rules on Emissions and Mileage | first=John M. | last=Broder | date=May 19, 2009 | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> Both environmentalists and auto industry officials largely welcomed the move, as the plan raised national emission standards but provided the single national efficiency standard that auto industry officials group had long desired.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> In 2012, Obama set even higher standards, mandating an average fuel efficiency of {{convert|54.5|mpgUS|l/100km}}.<ref name="2012CAFE">{{cite news|last1=Vlasic|first1=Bill|title=U.S. Sets Higher Fuel Efficiency Standards|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/29/business/energy-environment/obama-unveils-tighter-fuel-efficiency-standards.html|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 28, 2012}}</ref> Obama also signed the [[Car Allowance Rebate System|"cash-for-clunkers"]] bill, which provided incentives to consumers to trade in older, less fuel-efficient cars for more efficient cars. The [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]] provided $54 billion in funds to encourage domestic [[renewable energy]] production, make federal buildings more energy-efficient, improve the [[electricity grid]], repair public housing, and weatherize modest-income homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://waxman.house.gov/UploadedFiles/ARRA.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106095705/http://waxman.house.gov/UploadedFiles/ARRA.pdf|archive-date=January 6, 2011|date=April 20, 2009|title=American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|access-date=May 14, 2012}}</ref> Obama also promoted the use of [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s, and 400,000 electric cars had been sold by the end of 2015.<ref name=dshepardson>{{cite news|last1=Shepardson|first1=David|title=Electric vehicle sales fall far short of Obama goal|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-electric-obama-insight-idUSKCN0UY0F0|access-date=January 21, 2016|publisher=Reuters|date=January 20, 2016}}</ref> According to a report by The American Lung Association, there was a "major improvement" in air quality under Obama.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/09/air-quality-improve-obama/|title=Did Air Quality Improve Under Obama? - FactCheck.org|date=September 21, 2017|work=FactCheck.org|access-date=April 4, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Economy=== {{Hauptartikel|Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration}} {{Siehe auch|Great Recession|Economy of the United States}} {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ Economic indicators and federal finances under the Bush and Obama administrations ''$ represent U.S. trillions of [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|unadjusted]] dollars'' |- ! rowspan="2"|Year ! rowspan="2"|Unemploy- ment<ref name=blsunemployment>{{cite web|title=A-1. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over, 1980 to date|url=http://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea01.htm|website=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]|publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]]|access-date=January 6, 2016}}</ref> ! rowspan="2"| [[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP Growth]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A191RL1A225NBEA|title=Real Gross Domestic Product|date=January 1, 1930|website=[[Federal Reserve Economic Data]], Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> | colspan="4" style="background:honeydew"|U.S. Government<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=of9M |title=Federal Receipts, Outlays and Deficits, 2007-2016 — US Treasury |via=FRED }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=mCXl |title=Federal Debt Held by the Public, US Treasury |via=FRED }}</ref> |- ! Receipts!! Outlays !! Deficit !! Debt |- style="background:papayawhip" | ''ending'' || colspan="2"|''Dec 31 (Calendar Year)'' || colspan="4"|''Sep 30 (Fiscal Year)''{{ref|fiscalyear}} |- |- style="background:mistyrose" ! ''2007*'' | 4.6% | 1.9% | $2.568 | $2.729 | − $0.161 | $5.0 |- style="background:mistyrose" ! ''2008*'' | 5.8% | –0.1% | $2.524 | $2.983 | − $0.459 | $5.8 |- ! 2009 | 9.3% | –2.5% | $2.105 | $3.518 | − $1.413 | $7.5 |- ! 2010 | 9.6% | 2.6% | $2.163 | $3.457 | − $1.294 | $9.0 |- ! 2011 | 8.9% | 1.6% | $2.303 | $3.603 | − $1.300 | $10.1 |- ! 2012 | 8.1% | 2.2% | $2.450 | $3.527 | − $1.077 | $11.3 |- ! 2013 | 7.4% | 1.8% | $2.775 | $3.455 | − $0.680 | $12.0 |- ! 2014 | 6.2% | 2.5% | $3.021 | $3.506 | − $0.485 | $12.8 |- ! 2015 | 5.3% | 3.1% | $3.250 | $3.692 | − $0.442 | $13.1 |- ! 2016 | 4.9% | 1.7% | $3.268 | $3.853 | − $0.585 | $14.2 |} Upon entering office, Obama focused on handling the [[global financial crisis of 2008–2009|global financial crisis]] and the subsequent [[Great Recession]] that had begun before his election,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2009/01/19/news/economy/obama_first_week/|title=Obama's top priority: the economy|last=Henry|first=Ed|date=January 19, 2009|publisher=CNN|access-date=February 9, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/Business/story?id=6568008&page=1|title=Obama Pushes Economic Plan, Saying It Can't Wait|last=Goldman|first=Russell|author2=Jake Tapper|date=January 5, 2009|work=[[ABC News]]|access-date=February 9, 2009}}</ref> which was generally regarded as the worst economic downturn since the [[Great Depression]].<ref name="jpuzzanghera">{{cite news|last1=Puzzanghera|first1=Jim|title=Shocked into reality by the Great Recession|url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-recession-psyche-20140627-story.html|access-date=August 2, 2016|work=LA Times|date=June 27, 2014}}</ref> On February 17, 2009, Obama signed into law a $787 billion [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|economic stimulus bill]] that included spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and [[tax incentive|incentives]], and direct assistance to individuals. The tax provisions of the law, including a $116 billion income tax cut, temporarily reduced taxes for 98 percent of taxpayers, bringing tax rates to their lowest levels in 60 years.<ref>{{cite news| last = Condon | first = Stephanie| title = What's Obama Doing to Your Taxes? | work = [[CBS News]]| date = April 15, 2010| url = http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20002548-503544.html| access-date =November 13, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/19/us/politics/19taxes.html|title=From Obama, the Tax Cut Nobody Heard Of|first=Michael|last=Cooper|date=October 18, 2010|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> The Obama administration would later argue that the stimulus saved the United States from a "double-dip" recession.<ref name=mgrunwald2>{{cite news|last1=Grunwald|first1=Michael|title=5 Years After Stimulus, Obama Says It Worked|url=http://time.com/8362/economic-stimulus-recovery-act-anniversary-obama/|access-date=December 4, 2015|work=Time|date=February 17, 2014}}</ref> Obama asked for a second major stimulus package in December 2009,<ref name=mscherer>{{cite news|last1=Scherer|first1=Michael|title=Calling for a New Stimulus, Obama Is Ready to Rumble|url=http://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1946482,00.html|access-date=December 4, 2015|work=Time|date=December 9, 2009}}</ref> but no major second stimulus bill passed. Obama also launched a [[Automotive industry crisis of 2008–10|second bailout]] of US automakers, possibly saving [[General Motors]] and [[Chrysler]] from bankruptcy at the cost of $9.3 billion.<ref>Austan D. Goolsbee, and Alan B. Krueger. "A retrospective look at rescuing and restructuring General Motors and Chrysler." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 29.2 (2015): 3-24. [https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.29.2.3 online]</ref><ref name=snavely>{{cite news|last1=Snavely|first1=Brent|title=Final tally: Taxpayers auto bailout loss $9.3B|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2014/12/30/auto-bailout-tarp-gm-chrysler/21061251/|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=USA Today|date=December 13, 2014}}</ref> For homeowners in danger of defaulting on their [[mortgage]] due to the [[subprime mortgage crisis]], Obama launched several programs, including [[Home Affordable Refinance Program|HARP]] and [[Home Affordable Modification Program|HAMP]].<ref name=hscorecard>{{cite news|last1=Christie|first1=Les|title=Obama's housing scorecard|url=https://money.cnn.com/2012/09/14/real_estate/obama-housing-market/|access-date=November 19, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=October 16, 2012}}</ref><ref name=korton>{{cite news|last1=Orton|first1=Kathy|title=Homeowners get more time to take advantage of HAMP, HARP|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/where-we-live/wp/2015/05/08/homeowners-get-more-time-to-take-advantage-of-hamp-harp/|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=May 8, 2015}}</ref> Obama re-appointed [[Ben Bernanke]] as Chair of the [[Federal Reserve Board]] in 2009,<ref name=nirwin>{{cite news|last1=Irwin|first1=Neil|title=Obama Picks Bernanke for Second Term as Federal Reserve Chairman|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/25/AR2009082501115.html|access-date=November 20, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=August 26, 2009}}</ref> and appointed [[Janet Yellen]] to succeed Bernanke in 2013.<ref name=yellen>{{cite news|last1=Epstein|first1=Jennifer|title=Obama picks Yellen as next Fed chair|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/10/janet-yellen-federal-reserve-nomination-098083|access-date=November 20, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=October 9, 2013}}</ref> Short-term [[interest rate]]s remained [[Zero interest-rate policy|near zero]] for much of Obama's presidency, and the Federal Reserve did not raise interest rates during Obama's presidency until December 2015.<ref name=2015interestrates>{{cite news|last1=Applebaum|first1=Binyamin|title=Fed Raises Key Interest Rate for First Time in Almost a Decade|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/17/business/economy/fed-interest-rates.html|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 16, 2015}}</ref> There was a [[List of U.S. states by unemployment rate|sustained increase of the U.S. unemployment rate]] during the early months of the administration,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?request_action=wh&graph_name=LN_cpsbref3| title= Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey| date= August 1, 2009| work= United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics}}</ref> as multi-year economic stimulus efforts continued.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://blogs.abcnews.com/george/2009/07/biden-we-misread-the-economy-.html|first=George|last=Stephanopoulos|author-link=George Stephanopoulos| title= Biden: We 'Misread the Economy'|date= July 5, 2009| work=George's Bottom Line|publisher=[[ABC News]]|access-date=April 20, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/12/AR2010011203737.html | work=The Washington Post | title=Economic stimulus has created or saved nearly 2 million jobs, White House says | first=Alec | last=MacGillis | date=January 13, 2010 | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> The unemployment rate reached a peak in October 2009 at 10.0%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/UNRATE|title=Civilian Unemployment Rate|last=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|date=January 1, 1948|website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> However, the economy added non-farm jobs for a record 75 straight months between October 2010 and December 2016, and the unemployment rate fell to 4.7% in December 2016.<ref name="mudland1">{{cite news|last1=Udland|first1=Myles|title=President Obama's economic legacy has just been cemented|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/president-obamas-economic-legacy-has-just-been-cemented-162815371.html|access-date=January 6, 2017|publisher=Yahoo|date=January 6, 2017}}</ref> The recovery from the Great Recession was marked by a lower labor force participation rate, some economists attributing the lower participation rate partially to an aging population and people staying in school longer, as well as long-term structural demographic changes.<ref name=asoergel>{{cite news|last1=Soergel|first1=Andrew|title=Where are all the workers?|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/the-report/articles/2015/07/16/unemployment-is-low-but-more-workers-are-leaving-the-workforce|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=US News and World Report|date=July 16, 2015}}</ref> The recovery also laid bare the growing [[income inequality in the United States]],<ref name=dleonhardt>{{cite news|last1=Leonhardt|first1=David|title=Inequality Has Actually Not Risen Since the Financial Crisis|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/17/upshot/inequality-has-actually-not-risen-since-the-financial-crisis.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=February 17, 2015}}</ref> which the Obama administration highlighted as a major problem.<ref name=jharwood>{{cite news|last1=Harwood|first1=John|title=Obama's Economic Report Focuses on Income Inequality|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/20/business/economy/obamas-economic-report-focuses-on-income-inequality.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=February 19, 2015}}</ref> The [[Minimum wage in the United States|federal minimum wage]] [[Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007|increased]] during Obama's presidency to $7.25 per hour;<ref name="minwage1">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Aaron|title=Minimum wage hike: More money or fewer jobs?|url=https://money.cnn.com/2009/07/24/news/economy/minimum_wage/|access-date=May 18, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=July 19, 2009}}</ref> in his second term, Obama advocated for another increase to $12 per hour.<ref name="minwage2">{{cite news|last1=Devaney|first1=Tim|title=Dems bet 2016 on $12 minimum wage|url=http://thehill.com/policy/finance/other/241019-dems-bet-on-push-for-12-min-wage-ahead-of-2016|access-date=May 18, 2016|work=The Hill|date=May 5, 2015}}</ref> [[File:Obama and Bill Clinton.jpg|thumb|right|Obama speaking with former President [[Bill Clinton]] and Senior Advisor [[Valerie Jarrett]] about job creation in July 2010]] GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a 1.6% pace, followed by a 5.0% increase in the fourth quarter.<ref name="BEA1">{{cite web |url=http://bea.gov/national/nipaweb/TableView.asp?SelectedTable=1&ViewSeries=NO&Java=no&Request3Place=N&3Place=N&FromView=YES&Freq=Qtr&FirstYear=2009&LastYear=2010&3Place=N&Update=Update&JavaBox=no#Mid |title=Percent Change in Real Gross Domestic Product (Quarterly) |work=National Income and Product Accounts Table |publisher=Bureau of Economic Analysis |access-date=April 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512014536/http://bea.gov/national/nipaweb/TableView.asp?SelectedTable=1&ViewSeries=NO&Java=no&Request3Place=N&3Place=N&FromView=YES&Freq=Qtr&FirstYear=2009&LastYear=2010&3Place=N&Update=Update&JavaBox=no#Mid |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7% in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year.<ref name=BEA1/> The country's real GDP grew by about 2% in 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014, peaking at 2.9% in 2015.<ref name=cnnmoneycharts>{{cite news|title=Obama's economy in 10 charts|url=https://money.cnn.com/gallery/news/economy/2015/10/28/obama-economy-10-charts/|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=October 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A191RL1A225NBEA|title=Real Gross Domestic Product|last=U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis|date=January 1, 1930|website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> In the aftermath of the recession, median household income (adjusted for inflation) declined during Obama's first term, before recovering to a new record high in his final year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MEHOINUSA672N|title=Real Median Household Income in the United States|last=U.S. Census Bureau|date=January 1, 1984|website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> The [[Poverty in the United States|poverty rate]] peaked at 15.1% in 2010 but declined to 12.7% in 2016, which was still higher than the 12.5% pre-recession figure of 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/income_wealth/cb11-157.html|title=Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2010 - Income & Wealth - Newsroom - U.S. Census Bureau|first=US Census Bureau Public Information|last=Office|website=www.census.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p60-235.pdf |title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2007 |work=[[census.gov]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.html|title=Income and Poverty in the United States: 2017|first=US Census|last=Bureau|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> The relatively small GDP growth rates in the United States and other [[developed country|developed countries]] following the Great Recession left economists and others wondering whether U.S. growth rates would ever return to the levels seen in the second half of the twentieth century.<ref name="leepuzzle">{{cite news|last1=Lee|first1=Timothy|title=The big puzzle in economics today: why is the economy growing so slowly?|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/8/1/12131216/theories-gdp-growth-slow|access-date=August 1, 2016|publisher=Vox|date=August 1, 2016}}</ref><ref name="lowgrowthworld">{{cite news|last1=Irwin|first1=Neil|title=We're in a Low-Growth World. How Did We Get Here?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/upshot/were-in-a-low-growth-world-how-did-we-get-here.html|access-date=August 7, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 6, 2016}}</ref> ===Taxation=== {{Siehe auch|Taxation in the United States}} {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ Federal [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]] brackets under Clinton, Bush, and Obama<ref name=taxfoundation>For single earners, unadjusted for inflation. {{cite web|title=Federal Individual Income Tax Rates History|url=http://taxfoundation.org/sites/taxfoundation.org/files/docs/fed_individual_rate_history_nominal.pdf|publisher=Tax Foundation|access-date=November 17, 2015}}</ref> |- ! Year ! [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton]]{{ref|Clintontaxes}} ! [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush]]{{ref|Bushtaxes}} ! Obama{{ref|Obamataxes}} |- | Bottom | 15% | 10% | 10% |- | 2nd | 28% | 15% | 15% |- | 3rd | 31% | 25% | 25% |- | 4th | 36% | 28% | 28% |- | 5th | - | 33% | 33% |- | 6th | - | - | 35% |- | Top | 39.6% | 35% | 39.6% |} Obama's presidency saw an extended battle over taxes that ultimately led to the permanent extension of most of the [[Bush tax cuts]], which had been enacted between 2001 and 2003. Those tax cuts were set to expire during Obama's presidency since they were originally passed using a Congressional maneuver known as [[Reconciliation (United States Congress)|reconciliation]], and had to fulfill the long-term deficit requirements of the "Byrd rule." During the [[Lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] session of the [[111th Congress]], Obama and Republicans wrangled over the ultimate fate of the cuts. Obama wanted to extend the tax cuts for taxpayers making less than $250,000 a year, while Congressional Republicans wanted a total extension of the tax cuts, and refused to support any bill that did not extend tax cuts for top earners.<ref>{{cite news | title = Senate Republicans block 9/11 health bill|work=Reuters| date = December 9, 2010| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/10/us-usa-congress-firefighters-idUSTRE6B903120101210| access-date = May 14, 2012| first=Donna| last=Smith}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| last = Stirewalt| first = Chris| title = Today's Power Play: Republicans and Democrats Play Chicken With Lame Duck| publisher = [[Fox News Channel]]| date = December 1, 2010| url = http://politics.blogs.foxnews.com/2010/12/01/todays-power-play-republicans-and-democrats-play-chicken-lame-duck| access-date = December 20, 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101204115222/http://politics.blogs.foxnews.com/2010/12/01/todays-power-play-republicans-and-democrats-play-chicken-lame-duck| archive-date = December 4, 2010| url-status = dead}}</ref> Obama and the Republican Congressional leadership reached a deal that included a two-year extension of all the tax cuts, a 13-month extension of [[unemployment insurance]], a one-year reduction in the [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax|FICA payroll tax]], and other measures.<ref name=2013deal>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/08/us/politics/08cong.html | title=Democrats Skeptical of Obama on New Tax Plan |author=Herszenhorn, David M. | author2=Stolberg, Sheryl Gay |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=December 7, 2010}}</ref> Obama ultimately persuaded many wary Democrats to support the bill, though many liberals such as [[Bernie Sanders]] continued to oppose it.<ref name="cnn-signs"/><ref>{{cite web |first=Nick |last=Wing |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/12/10/bernie-sanders-filibuster_n_795087.html |title=Bernie Sanders Filibuster: Senator Stalls Tax Cut Deal |date=December 10, 2010 |work=[[The Huffington Post]] }}</ref> The $858 billion [[Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010]] passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress and was signed into law by Obama on December 17, 2010.<ref name="cnn-signs">{{cite news | url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/12/17/tax.deal/index.html | title=Obama signs tax deal into law | publisher=CNN | date=December 17, 2010 | access-date=December 17, 2010}}</ref><ref name="wapo-deal">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/12/16/AR2010121606672.html |title=Congress votes to extend Bush-era tax cuts until '12 |work=The Washington Post |date= December 17, 2010|access-date=December 17, 2010}}</ref> Shortly after Obama's 2012 re-election, Congressional Republicans and Obama again [[United States fiscal cliff|faced off]] over the final fate of the Bush tax cuts. Republicans sought to make all tax cuts permanent, while Obama sought to extend the tax cuts only for those making under $250,000.<ref name=steinhauer1/> Obama and Congressional Republicans came to an agreement on the [[American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012]], which made permanent the tax cuts for individuals making less than $400,000 a year (or less than $450,000 for couples).<ref name=steinhauer1/> For earnings greater than that amount, the income tax increased from 35% to 39.6%, which was the top rate before the passage of the Bush tax cuts.<ref name=jyellin>{{cite news|last1=Yellin|first1=Jessica|title=Fiscal cliff deal stops many tax hikes, but leaves big issues pending|url=https://money.cnn.com/2013/01/01/news/economy/fiscal-cliff-senate-bill/index.html|access-date=November 17, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=January 2, 2013}}</ref> The deal also permanently indexed the [[alternative minimum tax]] for inflation, limited [[tax deduction|deductions]] for individuals making more than $250,000 ($300,000 for couples), permanently set the [[Estate tax in the United States|estate tax]] exemption at $5.12 million (indexed to inflation), and increased the top estate tax rate from 35% to 40%.<ref name=jyellin/> Though many Republicans did not like the deal, the bill passed the Republican House in large part due to the fact that the failure to pass any bill would have resulted in the total expiration of the Bush tax cuts.<ref name=steinhauer1>{{cite news|last1=Steinhauer|first1=Jennifer|title=Divided House Passes Tax Deal in End to Latest Fiscal Standoff|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/02/us/politics/house-takes-on-fiscal-cliff.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=January 1, 2013}}</ref><ref name=lizza2>{{cite news|last1=Cantor|first1=Eric|title=The House of Pain|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/03/04/the-house-of-pain|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New Yorker|date=March 4, 2013}}</ref> ===Budget and debt ceiling=== {{Siehe auch|United States federal budget}} [[File:John Boehner official portrait.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[John Boehner]] (R-OH) served as [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] from 2011 to 2015.]] [[National debt of the United States|US government debt]] grew substantially during the [[Great Recession]], as government revenues fell and Obama largely eschewed the [[austerity]] policies followed by many European countries.<ref name=jcalmes17062013>{{cite news|last1=Calmes|first1=Jackie|title=Lines Blur in U.S.-Europe Debate on Austerity|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/17/business/economy/for-g-8-meeting-talk-of-economy-but-syria-looms-large.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 16, 2013}}</ref> US government debt grew from 52% of GDP when Obama took office in 2009 to 74% in 2014, with most of the growth in debt coming between 2009 and 2012.<ref name=cnnmoneycharts/> In 2010, Obama ordered the creation of the [[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform]] (also known as the "Simpson-Bowles Commission") in order to find ways to reduce the country's debt.<ref name=oksb>{{cite news|last1=O'Keefe|first1=Ed|title=What is the Simpson-Bowles Commission? (and why does it still matter?)|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/2chambers/wp/2012/11/27/what-is-the-simpson-bowles-commission-and-why-does-it-still-matter/|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 27, 2012}}</ref> The commission ultimately released a report that called for a mix of spending cuts and tax increases.<ref name=oksb/> Notable recommendations of the report include a cut in [[United States military spending|military spending]], a scaling back of tax deductions for [[Home mortgage interest deduction|mortgages]] and employer-provided health insurance, a raise of the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] retirement age, and reduced spending on Medicare, Medicaid, and federal employees.<ref name=oksb/> The proposal never received a vote in Congress, but it served as a template for future plans to reduce the national debt.<ref name=bfaler>{{cite news|last1=Faler|first1=Brian|title=The ghost of Simpson-Bowles|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2014/10/the-ghost-of-simpson-bowles-haunts-2014-112199|access-date=November 19, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=October 25, 2014}}</ref> After taking control of the House in the [[2010 United States elections|2010 elections]], Congressional Republicans [[Cut, Cap and Balance Act|demanded spending cuts]] in return for raising the [[United States debt ceiling]], the statutory limit on the total amount of debt that the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] can issue. The [[United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011|2011 debt-ceiling crisis]] developed as Obama and Congressional Democrats demanded a "clean" debt-ceiling increase that did not include spending cuts.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schroeder |first=Peter |url=http://thehill.com/blogs/on-the-money/budget/156425-white-house-maintains-call-for-clean-debt-ceiling-hike-despite-obama-comments |title=White House: Obama hasn't changed on 'clean' debt vote |work = [[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] | date = April 15, 2011 |access-date=November 14, 2015}}</ref> Though some Democrats argued that Obama could unilaterally raise the debt ceiling under the terms of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]],<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/27/house-democratic-leaders-urge-obama-to-use-14th-amendment_n_910878.html |title=House Democratic Leaders To Obama: Use The 14th Amendment |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |date=July 27, 2011 |access-date=November 15, 2011 |author=[[Jennifer Bendery]]}}</ref> Obama chose to negotiate with Congressional Republicans. Obama and Speaker of the House [[John Boehner]] attempted to negotiate a "grand bargain" to cut the deficit, reform [[Entitlement#Programs|entitlement programs]], and re-write the tax code, but the negotiations eventually collapsed due to ideological differences between the Democratic and Republican leaders.<ref name=wallsten>{{cite news|last1=Wallsten|first1=Peter|title=Obama's evolution: Behind the failed 'grand bargain' on the debt|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obamas-evolution-behind-the-failed-grand-bargain-on-the-debt/2012/03/15/gIQAHyyfJS_story.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=March 17, 2012}}</ref><ref name=mbai>{{cite news|last1=Bai|first1=Matt|title=Obama vs. Boehner: Who Killed the Debt Deal?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/magazine/obama-vs-boehner-who-killed-the-debt-deal.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=March 28, 2012}}</ref><ref name=gthrush>{{cite news|last1=Thrush|first1=Glenn|title=Boehner and Obama: Caught in a bad bromance|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/09/obama-boehner-bromance-214094|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=September 25, 2015}}</ref> Congress instead passed the [[Budget Control Act of 2011]], which raised the debt ceiling, provided for domestic and military spending cuts, and established the bipartisan [[United States Congress Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction|Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction]] to propose further spending cuts.<ref name="bmontopoli1">{{cite news|last1=Montopoli|first1=Brian|title=Obama signs debt limit bill after nasty fight|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/obama-signs-debt-limit-bill-after-nasty-fight/|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=CBS News|date=August 2, 2011}}</ref> As the Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction failed to reach an agreement on further cuts, domestic and military spending cuts known as the [[United States budget sequestration in 2013|"sequester"]] took effect starting in 2013.<ref name="sequester1">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Matt|title=CNN Explains: Sequestration|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/06/politics/cnn-explains-sequestration/|access-date=August 19, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=February 19, 2013}}</ref> In October 2013, the government [[United States federal government shutdown of 2013|shut down for two weeks]] as Republicans and Democrats were unable to agree on a budget. House Republicans passed a [[Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2014 (H.J.Res 59)|budget]] that would defund [[Obamacare]], but Senate Democrats refused to pass any budget that defunded Obamacare.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/01/us/politics/congress-shutdown-debate.html | title=Government Near Broad Shutdown in Budget Impasse | work=The New York Times | date=September 30, 2013 | last1=Weisman | first1=Jonathan | last2=Peters | first2=Jeremy W. | access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, the country faced another [[United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2013|debt ceiling crisis]]. Ultimately the two sides agreed to a [[Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014|continuing resolution]] that re-opened the government and suspended the debt ceiling.<ref name="jweisman1">{{cite news|last1=Weisman|first1=Jonathan|last2=Parker|first2=Ashley|title=Republicans Back Down, Ending Crisis Over Shutdown and Debt Limit|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/17/us/congress-budget-debate.html|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=October 16, 2013}}</ref> Months after passing the continuing resolution, Congress passed the [[Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013]] and an [[Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014|omnibus spending bill]] to fund the government through 2014.<ref name="lmontgomery2">{{cite news|last1=Montgomery|first1=Lori|title=Senate passes bipartisan budget agreement|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/senate-poised-to-pass-bipartisan-budget-agreement/2013/12/18/54fd3a1a-6807-11e3-a0b9-249bbb34602c_story.html|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=December 18, 2013}}</ref> In 2015, after John Boehner announced that he would [[October 2015 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election|resign]] as Speaker of the House, Congress passed a bill that set government spending targets and suspended the [[debt limit]] until after Obama left office.<ref name=Hers3>{{cite news|last1=Herszenhorn|first1=David|title=Congress Strikes a Budget Deal With President|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/27/us/politics/congress-and-white-house-near-deal-on-budget.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=October 26, 2015}}</ref> ===LGBT rights=== {{Siehe auch|LGBT rights in the United States}} [[File:White House rainbow for SCOTUS ruling on same-sex marriage.jpg|thumb|The [[White House]] lit with the LGBT rainbow flag celebrating the Supreme Court's decision in [[Obergefell v. Hodges]], legalizing same-sex marriage in the United States, June 26, 2015]] During his presidency, Obama, Congress, and the Supreme Court all contributed to a huge expansion of [[LGBT]] rights. In 2009, Obama signed the [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]], which expanded [[Hate crime laws in the United States|hate crime laws]] to cover crimes committed because of the victim's sexual orientation.<ref name="hatecrimes">{{cite news|last1=Zeleny|first1=Jeff|title=Obama Signs Hate Crimes Bill|url=http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/10/28/obama-signs-hate-crimes-bill/|access-date=July 22, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=October 28, 2009}}</ref> In December 2010, Obama signed the [[Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010]], which ended the military's [[Don't ask, don't tell|policy]] of disallowing openly gay and lesbian people from openly serving in the [[United States Armed Forces]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Jesse Lee |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2010/12/22/president-signs-repeal-dont-ask-dont-tell-out-many-we-are-one |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=The President Signs Repeal of "Don't Ask Don't Tell": "Out of Many, We Are One"|via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |access-date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> Obama also supported the passage of [[Employment Non-Discrimination Act|ENDA]], which would ban discrimination against employees on the basis of gender or sexual identity for all companies with 15 or more employees,<ref name=jsink>{{cite news|last1=Sink|first1=Justin|title=Obama urges ENDA vote in House|url=http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/189617-obama-urges-enda-vote-in-house|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Hill|date=November 7, 2013}}</ref> and the similar but more comprehensive [[Equality Act of 2015|Equality Act]].<ref name=benen>{{cite news|last1=Benen|first1=Steve|title=Obama White House throws support behind Equality Act|url=https://www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/obama-white-house-throws-support-behind-equality-act|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=MSNBC|date=November 12, 2015}}</ref> Neither bill passed Congress. In May 2012, Obama became the first sitting president to support [[same-sex marriage]], shortly after Vice President [[Joe Biden]] had also expressed support for the institution.<ref name=gast>{{cite news|last1=Gast|first1=Phil|title=Obama announces he supports same-sex marriage|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/09/politics/obama-same-sex-marriage/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=May 9, 2012}}</ref> The following year, Obama appointed [[Todd M. Hughes]] to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]], making Hughes the first openly gay federal judge in U.S. history.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Circuit and District Court Judges: Profile of Select Characteristics Barry J. McMillion|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43426.pdf|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=May 11, 2018|page=1}}</ref> In 2015, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry in the case of ''[[Obergefell v. Hodges]]''. The Obama Administration filed an amicus brief in support of gay marriage and Obama personally congratulated the plaintiff.<ref name=escott>{{cite news|last1=Scott|first1=Eugene|title=Barack Obama calls gay marriage case plaintiff Jim Obergefell|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/26/politics/obama-calls-gay-marriage-ruling-plaintiff-jim-obergefell/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=June 30, 2015}}</ref> Obama also issued dozens of executive orders intended to help LGBT Americans,<ref name="onceskeptical">{{cite news|last1=Applebaum|first1=Binyamin|last2=Shear|first2=Michael|title=Once Skeptical of Executive Power, Obama Has Come to Embrace It|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/14/us/politics/obama-era-legacy-regulation.html|access-date=August 18, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 13, 2016}}</ref> including a 2010 order that extended full benefits to same-sex partners of federal employees.<ref name=jdiamond/> A [[Executive Order 13672|2014 order]] prohibited discrimination against employees of federal contractors on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.<ref name=jdiamond>{{cite news|last1=Diamond|first1=Jeremy|title=Obama bars federal contractors from LGBT discrimination|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/21/politics/obama-lgbt-discrimination-executive-order/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=July 21, 2014}}</ref> In 2015, Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] ended the ban on [[women in combat]] roles,<ref name="womenincombat1">{{cite news|last1=Rosenberg|first1=Matthew|last2=Phillips|first2=Dave|title=All Combat Roles Now Open to Women, Defense Secretary Says|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/us/politics/combat-military-women-ash-carter.html|access-date=September 8, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=December 3, 2015}}</ref> and in 2016, he ended the ban on [[transgender]] individuals openly serving in the military.<ref name="transmilitary">{{cite news|last1=Rizzo|first1=Jennifer|last2=Cohen|first2=Zachary|title=Pentagon ends transgender ban|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/30/politics/transgender-ban-lifted-us-military/|access-date=August 25, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=June 30, 2016}}</ref> On the international stage, Obama advocated for gay rights, particularly in [[Africa]].<ref name=onishi>{{cite news|last1=Onishi|first1=Norimitsu|title=Obama Kenya Trip Sets Off Gay Rights Debate in Africa|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/22/world/africa/africans-to-welcome-obama-but-not-a-scolding-on-gay-rights.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 21, 2015}}</ref> ===Education=== {{Siehe auch|Education in the United States}} The Great Recession of 2008-09 caused a sharp decline in tax revenues in all cities and states. The response was to cut education budgets. Obama's $800 billion stimulus package included $100 billion for public schools, which every state used to protect its educational budget. However, in terms of sponsoring innovation, Obama and his Education Secretary [[Arne Duncan]] pursued K-12 education reform through the [[Race to the Top]] grant program. With over $15 billion of grants at stake, 34 states quickly revised their education laws according to the proposals of advanced educational reformers. In the competition points were awarded for allowing charter schools to multiply, for compensating teachers on a merit basis including student test scores, and for adopting higher educational standards. There were incentives for states to establish college and career-ready standards, which in practice meant adopting the [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]] that had been developed on a bipartisan basis by the [[National Governors Association]], and the [[Council of Chief State School Officers]]. The criteria were not mandatory, they were incentives to improve opportunities to get a grant. Most states revised their laws accordingly, even though they realized it was unlikely they would when a highly competitive new grant. Race to the Top had strong bipartisan support, with centrist elements from both parties. It was opposed by the left wing of the Democratic Party, and by the right wing of the Republican Party, and criticized for centralizing too much power in Washington. Complaints also came from middle-class families, who were annoyed at the increasing emphasis on teaching to the test, rather than encouraging teachers to show creativity and stimulating students' imagination.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jonathan |last=Zimmerman |chapter=Education in the Age of Obama: The Paradox of Consensus |editor=Zelizer |title=The Presidency of Barack Obama |pages=111–126 |jstor=j.ctvc777dh.12 |year=2018 |isbn=9780691160283 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0895904811425911 |title=Stimulating Reform |journal=Educational Policy |volume=26 |pages=136–159 |year=2012 |last1=McGuinn |first1=Patrick |s2cid=154566214 }}</ref> Obama also advocated for universal [[pre-kindergarten]] programs,<ref name=ebadger2>{{cite news|last1=Badger|first1=Emily|title=Why conservatives should get behind Obama's push for universal Pre-K|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/02/02/why-conservatives-should-get-behind-obamas-push-for-universal-pre-k/|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=February 2, 2015}}</ref> and two free years of community college for everyone.<ref name=jhdavis>{{cite news|last1=Hirschfield Davis|first1=Julie|title=Obama Will Seek to Raise Taxes on Wealthy to Finance Cuts for Middle Class|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/18/us/president-obama-will-seek-to-reduce-taxes-for-middle-class.html|access-date=November 17, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=January 17, 2015}}</ref> Through her [[Let's Move]] program and advocacy of healthier school lunches, First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] focused attention on [[childhood obesity]], which was three times higher in 2008 than it had been in 1974.<ref name=kliptak2>{{cite news|last1=Liptak|first1=Kevin|title=Michelle Obama's Let's Move turns 5; Is it working?|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/06/politics/michelle-obamas-lets-move-turns-5-is-it-working/|access-date=December 19, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=April 6, 2015}}</ref> In December 2015, Obama signed the [[Every Student Succeeds Act]], a bipartisan bill that reauthorized federally mandated testing but shrank the federal government's role in education, especially with regard to troubled schools.<ref name=ESSA>{{cite news|last1=Hirschfield Davis|first1=Julie|title=President Obama Signs Into Law a Rewrite of No Child Left Behind|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/11/us/politics/president-obama-signs-into-law-a-rewrite-of-no-child-left-behind.html|access-date=December 11, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 10, 2015}}</ref> The law also ended the use of waivers by the Education Secretary.<ref name=ESSA/> In post-secondary education, Obama signed the [[Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010]], which ended the role of private banks in lending out federally insured [[student loan]]s,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://prescriptions.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/03/30/the-last-piece-in-place/ | work=The New York Times | title=The Last Piece in Place | first=David M. | last=Herszenhorn | date=March 30, 2010 | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> created a new income-based loan repayment plan known as [[Pay as You Earn (PAYE) - Federal Student Loan Relief Program|Pay as You Earn]], and increased the amount of [[Pell Grant]] awards given each year.<ref name="CBSNews">{{cite news|last=Madison|first=Lucy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20126172-503544/who-will-benefit-from-obamas-student-loan-plan/|title=Who will benefit from Obama's student loan plan? |work=[[CBS News]] |date=October 26, 2011 |access-date=May 14, 2012}}</ref> He also instituted new regulations on [[for-profit college]]s, including a "gainful employment" rule that restricted federal funding from colleges that failed to adequately prepare graduates for careers.<ref name=agrasgreen>{{cite news|last1=Grasgreen|first1=Allie|title=Obama pushes for-profit colleges to the brink|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/07/barack-obama-pushes-for-profit-colleges-to-the-brink-119613|access-date=January 11, 2016|publisher=Politico|date=July 1, 2015}}</ref> ===Immigration=== {{Siehe auch|Immigration to the United States}} From the beginning of his presidency, Obama supported comprehensive immigration reform, including a pathway to citizenship for many immigrants illegally residing in the United States.<ref name=thompson1>{{cite news|last1=Thompson|first1=Cheryl|title=Obama Says Immigration Reform Is a Priority, but Won't Happen Soon|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/10/AR2009081001797.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=August 11, 2009}}</ref> However, Congress did not pass a comprehensive immigration bill during Obama's tenure, and Obama turned to executive actions. In the 2010 lame-duck session, Obama supported passage of the [[DREAM Act]], which passed the House but failed to overcome a Senate filibuster in a 55–41 vote in favor of the bill.<ref name=herszenhorn1>{{cite news|last1=Herszenhorn|first1=David M.|title=Senate Blocks Bill for Young Illegal Immigrants|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/19/us/politics/19immig.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 18, 2010}}</ref> In 2013, the Senate passed [[Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013|an immigration bill]] with a path to citizenship, but the House did not vote on the bill.<ref name=lizzaimm>{{cite news|last1=Lizza|first1=Ryan|title=How the Senate Passed Immigration Reform|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-the-senate-passed-immigration-reform|access-date=November 16, 2015|work=The New Yorker|date=June 28, 2013}}</ref><ref name=ggibson>{{cite news|last1=Gibson|first1=Ginger|title=Boehner: No vote on Senate immigration bill|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2013/07/john-boehner-house-immigration-vote-093845|access-date=November 16, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=July 8, 2013}}</ref> In 2012, Obama implemented the [[Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals|DACA]] policy, which protected roughly 700,000 illegal immigrants from deportation; the policy applies only to those who were brought to the United States before their 16th birthday.<ref name=markon>{{cite news|last1=Markon|first1=Jerry|title=Obama's 2012 DACA move offers a window into pros and cons of executive action|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obamas-2012-daca-move-offers-a-window-into-pros-and-cons-of-executive-action/2014/11/30/88be7a36-7188-11e4-893f-86bd390a3340_story.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 30, 2014}}</ref> In 2014, Obama announced a [[Deferred Action for Parents of Americans|new executive order]] that would have protected another four million illegal immigrants from deportation,<ref name=ehrenfreund>{{cite news|last1=Ehrenfreund|first1=Max|title=Your complete guide to Obama's immigration executive action|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/11/19/your-complete-guide-to-obamas-immigration-order/|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 20, 2014}}</ref> but the order was blocked by the Supreme Court in a [[United States v. Texas|4-4 tie vote]] that upheld a lower court's ruling.<ref name="mshear1">{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|title=For Obama, Supreme Court Defeat Upends a Legacy on Immigration|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/24/us/immigration-obama-supreme-court.html|access-date=June 23, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 23, 2016}}</ref> Despite executive actions to protect some individuals, deportations of illegal immigrants continued under Obama. A record high of 400,000 deportations occurred in 2012, though the number of deportations fell during Obama's second term.<ref name=nakamuraimm>{{cite news|last1=Nakamura|first1=David|title=Obama struggling with immigration rules and cruelties of deportation|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-struggling-with-immigration-rules-and-cruelties-of-deportation/2016/01/18/5c2d4258-bba7-11e5-b682-4bb4dd403c7d_story.html|access-date=January 19, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 19, 2016}}</ref> In continuation of a trend that began with the passage of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]], the percentage of foreign-born people living in the United States reached 13.7% in 2015, higher than at any point since the early 20th century.<ref name="agomez1">{{cite news|last1=Gomez|first1=Alan|title=U.S. foreign-born population nears high|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/09/28/us-foreign-born-population-nears-high/72814674/|access-date=August 31, 2016|publisher=USA Today|date=September 25, 2015}}</ref><ref name="pewimmigration1">{{cite news|title=Modern Immigration Wave Brings 59 Million to U.S., Driving Population Growth and Change Through 2065|url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wave-brings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-change-through-2065/|access-date=August 31, 2016|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=September 28, 2015}}</ref> After having risen since 1990, the number of illegal immigrants living in the United States stabilized at around 11.5 million individuals during Obama's presidency, down from a peak of 12.2 million in 2007.<ref name="nytjan2017charts1">{{cite news|last1=Ratner|first1=Steven|title=2016 in Charts. (And Can Trump Deliver in 2017?)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/03/opinion/2016-in-charts-and-can-trump-deliver-in-2017.html|access-date=January 4, 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 3, 2017}}</ref><ref name="krogstad1">{{cite news|last1=Manuel Krogstad|first1=Jens|last2=Passell|first2=Jeffrey|title=5 facts about illegal immigration in the U.S.|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/19/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/|access-date=August 31, 2016|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=November 19, 2015}}</ref> The nation's [[Immigration to the United States|immigrant population]] hit a record 42.2 million in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/28/statistical-portrait-of-the-foreign-born-population-in-the-united-states-1960-2013-key-charts/|title=Statistical Portrait of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States |date=September 28, 2015|work=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> In November 2015, Obama announced a plan to resettle at least 10,000 [[Refugees of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian refugees]] in the United States.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/nov/26/obama-americans-welcome-syrian-refugees-pilgrims|title=Obama calls on Americans to welcome Syrian refugees as latter-day Pilgrims |date=November 26, 2015|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> ===Energy=== {{Siehe auch|Energy policy of the Obama administration}} [[File:President Speaks to Crew on Space Station.jpg|thumb|upright|President Obama during a call to the crew aboard the [[International Space Station|ISS]]]] Energy production boomed during the Obama administration.<ref name=cisidore>{{cite news|last1=Isidore|first1=Chris|title=The Obama oil boom|url=https://money.cnn.com/2015/01/28/news/economy/obama-oil-boom/|access-date=December 13, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=January 28, 2015}}</ref> An increase in oil production was driven largely by a [[fracking]] boom spurred by private investment on private land, and played only a small role in this development.<ref name=cisidore/> The Obama administration promoted the growth of [[renewable energy]],<ref name=tgardner>{{cite news|last1=Gardner|first1=Timothy|title=Congress kills U.S. oil export ban, boosts solar, wind power|url=https://news.yahoo.com/house-passes-bill-freeing-u-oil-exports-senate-161742293.html|access-date=December 19, 2015|publisher=Yahoo!|date=December 18, 2015}}</ref> and [[solar power]] generation tripled during Obama's presidency.<ref name="tcama1">{{cite news|last1=Cama|first1=Timothy|title=Obama makes new push on solar power|url=http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/288340-obama-makes-new-push-on-solar-power|access-date=August 19, 2016|work=The Hill|date=July 19, 2016}}</ref> Obama also issued numerous energy efficiency standards, contributing to a flattening of growth of the total U.S. energy demand.<ref name="mooneyee1">{{cite news|last1=Mooney|first1=Chris|title=Obama has done more to save energy than any other president|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/08/05/obama-has-done-more-to-save-energy-than-any-other-president/|access-date=January 19, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=August 5, 2016}}</ref> In May 2010, Obama extended a moratorium on offshore drilling permits after the 2010 [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]], which is generally considered to be the worst oil spill in U.S. history.<ref name="extmorat">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/28/us/28drill.html |title=Obama Extends Moratorium; Agency Chief Resigns |newspaper=The New York Times |date=May 27, 2010 |access-date=June 8, 2010 | first=Peter | last=Baker}}</ref><ref name="largest in US hist">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-05-27-oil-spill-news_N.htm |title=Obama, in Gulf, pledges to push on stopping leak |newspaper=USA Today |date=May 27, 2010 |access-date=May 27, 2010 }}</ref> In December 2016, President Obama invoked the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to ban offshore oil and gas exploration in large parts of the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] and Atlantic Oceans.<ref name="dfears1">{{cite news|last1=Fears|first1=Darryl|last2=Eilperin|first2=Juliet|title=President Obama bans oil drilling in large areas of Atlantic and Arctic oceans|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/12/20/president-obama-expected-to-ban-oil-drilling-in-large-areas-of-atlantic-and-arctic-oceans/|access-date=December 31, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=December 20, 2016}}</ref> During Obama's tenure, the battle over the [[Keystone XL Pipeline]] became a major issue, with advocates arguing that it would contribute to economic growth and environmentalists arguing that its approval would contribute to global warming.<ref name=ovkp/> The proposed {{convert|1000|mi|km|adj=on}} pipeline would have connected Canada's [[oil sand]]s with the [[Gulf of Mexico]].<ref name=ovkp/> Because the pipeline crossed international boundaries, its construction required the approval of the US federal government, and the US State Department engaged in a lengthy review process.<ref name=ovkp>{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Coral|title=Citing Climate Change, Obama Rejects Construction of Keystone XL Oil Pipeline|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/07/us/obama-expected-to-reject-construction-of-keystone-xl-oil-pipeline.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> President Obama vetoed a bill to construct the [[Keystone Pipeline]] in February 2015, arguing that the decision of approval should rest with the executive branch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/obama-vetoes-keystone-xl-pipeline-bill-n311671|title=Obama Vetoes Keystone XL Pipeline Bill|website=NBC News}}</ref> It was the first major veto of his presidency, and Congress was unable to override it.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/234615-senate-fails-to-override-obama-keystone-veto |title=Keystone veto override fails |date=March 4, 2015 }}</ref> In November 2015, Obama announced that he would not approve of the construction of the pipeline.<ref name=ovkp/> On vetoing the bill, he stated that the pipeline played an "overinflated role" in U.S. political discourse and would have had relatively little impact on job creation or climate change.<ref name=ovkp/> ===Drug policy and criminal justice reform=== {{Siehe auch|Criminal justice reform in the United States|Federal drug policy of the United States}} The Obama administration took a few steps to reform the criminal justice system at a time when many in both parties felt that the US had gone too far in incarcerating drug offenders,<ref name=bkeller>{{cite news|last1=Keller|first1=Bill|title=On Pardons, Obama's the Stingiest President Since John Adams|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/12/barack-obama-criminal-justice-pardons-213435|access-date=December 14, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=December 13, 2015}}</ref> and Obama was the first president since the 1960s to preside over a reduction in the federal prison population.<ref name="apuzzoprisonpop">{{cite news|last1=Apuzzo|first1=Matt|title=After Obama Push for Clemency, Hints of Reversal Likely to Come|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/us/politics/obama-commutations-criminal-justice-trump.html|access-date=November 23, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=November 22, 2016}}</ref> Obama's tenure also saw a continued decline of the [[Crime in the United States|national violent crime rate]] from its peak in 1991, though there was an uptick in the violent crime rate in 2015.<ref name="gersteincrimerate1">{{cite news|last1=Gerstein|first1=Josh|title=GOP speakers see crime surge under Obama, but record is mixed|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/rnc-2016-obama-crime-225783|access-date=January 20, 2017|publisher=Politico|date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref name="cbsvc">{{cite news|last1=AP|title=Fact check: Obama and Trump on crime in America|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/fact-check-obama-and-donald-trump-on-crime-in-america/|access-date=January 20, 2017|publisher=CBS|date=July 13, 2016}}</ref> In October 2009, the U.S. Department of Justice issued a directive to federal prosecutors in states with [[medical marijuana]] laws not to investigate or prosecute cases of marijuana use or production done in compliance with those laws.<ref>{{cite web |author=Office of Public Affairs |date=October 19, 2009 |title=Attorney General announces formal medical marijuana guidelines |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2009/October/09-ag-1119.html |access-date=July 19, 2010}} {{cite web |author=Ogden, David W. |date=October 19, 2009 |title=Memorandum for selected United States Attorneys: Investigations and prosecutions in states authorizing the medical use of marijuana |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |url=https://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/medical-marijuana.pdf |access-date=July 19, 2010}} {{cite news |author1=Stout, David |author2=Moore, Solomon |date=October 20, 2009 |title=U.S. won't prosecute in states that allow medical marijuana |newspaper=The New York Times |page=A1 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/us/20cannabis.html |access-date=July 19, 2010}} {{cite news |author=Johnson, Connie |date=October 20, 2009 |title=U.S. eases stance on medical marijuana. Attorney general says prosecuting such cases 'will not be a priority' |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=A1 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/19/AR2009101903638.html |access-date=July 19, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, President Obama signed the [[Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010]], which repealed a 21-year-old ban on federal funding of [[Needle-exchange programme|needle exchange programs]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Egelko, Bob |date=December 18, 2009 |title=U.S. ends funding ban for needle exchanges |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |page=A126 |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/12/18/MNKM1B5S7L.DTL |access-date=July 20, 2010}}</ref> In August 2010, Obama signed the [[Fair Sentencing Act]], which reduced the sentencing disparity between [[crack cocaine]] and powder [[cocaine]].<ref name=fsa>{{cite news|title=Obama signs bill reducing cocaine sentencing gap|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/03/fair.sentencing/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=August 3, 2010}}</ref> In 2012, Colorado and Washington became the first states to [[Cannabis in the United States#State|legalize]] non-medical [[marijuana]],<ref name=Ng>{{cite news|last1=Ng|first1=Christina|title=Colorado, Washington Become First States to Legalize Recreational Marijuana|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/OTUS/colorado-washington-states-legalize-recreational-marijuana/story?id=17652774|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=ABC News|date=November 7, 2012}}</ref> and six more states legalized recreational marijuana by the time Obama left office.<ref name="watkinskenny1">{{cite news|last1=Watkins|first1=Eli|last2=Kenny|first2=Caroline|last3=Tatum|first3=Sophie|title=44 ways to judge the Obama era|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/18/politics/obama-presidency-statistics/|access-date=January 19, 2017|publisher=CNN|date=January 18, 2017}}</ref> Though any use of marijuana [[Legal history of cannabis in the United States|remained illegal]] under [[Controlled Substances Act|federal law]], the Obama administration generally chose not to prosecute those who used marijuana in states that chose to legalize it.<ref name=richey>{{cite news|last1=Richey|first1=Warren|title=Supreme Court prods Obama administration in Colorado marijuana dispute (+video)|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2015/0504/Supreme-Court-prods-Obama-administration-in-Colorado-marijuana-dispute-video|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=May 4, 2015}}</ref> However, some liberals and libertarians criticized Obama for continuing or even expanding the [[war on drugs]], particularly in regards to [[medical marijuana]].<ref name=jsullum>{{cite news|last1=Sullum|first1=Jacob|title=Is Obama Finally Ready To Dial Back The War On Drugs?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobsullum/2015/01/01/is-obama-finally-ready-to-dial-back-the-war-on-drugs/2/|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=Forbes|date=January 1, 2015}}</ref><ref name=tdickinson>{{cite news|last1=Dickinson|first1=Tim|title=Obama's War on Pot|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/obamas-war-on-pot-20120216|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=Rolling Stone|date=February 16, 2012}}</ref> In 2016, Obama announced that the federal government would phase out the use of [[private prison]]s.<ref name="privateprisons1">{{cite news|last1=Savage|first1=Charlie|title=U.S. to Phase Out Use of Private Prisons for Federal Inmates|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/us/us-to-phase-out-use-of-private-prisons-for-federal-inmates.html|access-date=September 8, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 18, 2016}}</ref> Obama [[pardon|commuted]] the sentences of over 1,000 individuals, a higher number of commutations than any other president, and most of Obama's commutations went to nonviolent drug offenders.<ref name="ledermanpardons">{{cite news|last1=Lederman|first1=Josh|last2=Tucker|first2=Eric|title=Pressure on Obama to grant last-minute pardons, commutations|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/pressure-on-obama-to-grant-last-minute-pardons-commutations/2017/01/05/5f150f24-d31f-11e6-9651-54a0154cf5b3_story.html|access-date=January 11, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 5, 2017}}</ref><ref name="shorwitz1">{{cite news|last1=Horwitz|first1=Sari|title=Obama grants final 330 commutations to nonviolent drug offenders|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/obama-grants-final-330-commutations-to-nonviolent-drug-offenders/2017/01/19/41506468-de5d-11e6-918c-99ede3c8cafa_story.html?tid=a_breakingnews|access-date=January 19, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 19, 2017}}</ref> During Obama's presidency, there was a [[Opioid epidemic|sharp rise in opioid mortality]]. Many of the deaths – then and now – result from [[fentanyl]] consumption where an overdose is more likely than with [[heroin]] consumption. And many people died because they were not aware of this difference or thought that they would administer themselves heroin or a drug mixture but actually used pure fentanyl.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-03-overdose-deaths-fentanyl-soaring.html |title=Overdose deaths from fentanyl soaring: report |website=medicalxpress.com |date=March 21, 2019 }}</ref> Health experts criticized the government's response as slow and weak.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/fentanyl-epidemic-obama-administration/|title=Obama officials failed to focus as fentanyl burned its way across America|date=2019|work=The Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/podcasts/post-reports/how-the-obama-administration-missed-the-fentanyl-crisis/ |title=How the Obama administration missed the fentanyl crisis |work=The Washington Post |date=March 13, 2019 }}</ref> ===Gun control=== {{Siehe auch|Gun politics in the United States}} [[File:President Obama Makes a Statement on the Shooting in Newtown.ogv|thumb|right|Obama's statement on the [[Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting]]]] Obama called for [[gun control]] measures in the aftermath of several [[mass shooting]]s, but was unable to pass a major bill. In 2009, Obama discussed reinstating the [[Federal Assault Weapons Ban]], but did not make a strong push to pass it through Congress at that time.<ref name="eplanin1">{{cite news|last1=Planin|first1=Eric|title=Why Congress Wimped Out on the Assault Weapons Ban|url=http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2013/01/17/Why-Congress-Wimped-Out-on-the-Assault-Weapons-Ban|access-date=August 19, 2016|publisher=The Fiscal Times|date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> Following the December 2012 [[Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting]], Obama outlined a series of sweeping gun control proposals, urging Congress to reintroduce an expired ban on "military-style" [[assault weapons]], impose limits on [[Magazine (firearms)|ammunition magazines]] to 10 rounds, introduce [[background check]]s on all gun sales, pass a ban on possession and sale of [[armor-piercing bullet]]s, introduce harsher penalties for gun-traffickers, and approve the appointment of the head of the federal [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]] for the first time since 2006.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21049942 | work=BBC News | location=London | title=US gun debate: Obama unveils gun control proposals | first=Mark | last=Mardell | date=January 16, 2013 | access-date=January 16, 2013}}</ref> Senators [[Joe Manchin]] (D-WV) and [[Pat Toomey]] (R-PA) attempted to pass a more limited gun control measure that would have expanded background checks, but the bill was blocked in the Senate.<ref name=itkowitz>{{cite news|last1=Itkowitz|first1=Colby|title=Manchin, Toomey both interested in reviving gun control push|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2015/06/23/manchin-toomey-both-interested-in-reviving-gun-control-push/|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=June 23, 2015}}</ref> Despite Obama's advocacy and subsequent [[mass shooting]]s such as the [[Charleston church shooting]], no major gun control bill passed Congress during Obama's presidency, in part due to the power of [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|2nd Amendment]] activists such as the National Rifle Association.<ref name=droberts>{{cite news|last1=Roberts|first1=Dan|title=Despite Charleston killings, moves towards US gun control at a standstill|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/19/gun-reform-obama-not-optimistic-political-realities-congress|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Guardian|date=June 19, 2015}}</ref> Obama's presidency ironically saw expansion of gun rights in the United States, as the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[McDonald v. City of Chicago]]'' that the Second Amendment [[Incorporation of the Bill of Rights|applies to the states]] in addition to the federal government. Obama signed into law two bills containing amendments reducing restrictions on gun owners, one which permitted guns to be transported in checked baggage on Amtrak trains<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/09/16/national/main5316093.shtml |title=Senate Votes to Allow Guns on Amtrak |work=[[CBS News]] |date=September 16, 2009 |access-date=March 15, 2010 }}</ref> and another which allowed the carrying of loaded firearms in [[List of areas in the United States National Park System|national parks]] located in states allowing [[Concealed carry in the United States|concealed carry]].<ref name=NYT20100224>{{cite news |last=Urbina |first=Ian |date=February 23, 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/24/us/24guns.html |title=Fearing Obama Agenda, States Push to Loosen Gun Laws |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=March 15, 2010 }}</ref><ref name=WaTimes20100222>{{cite news |last=Dinan |first=Stephen |date=February 22, 2010 |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/feb/22/national-parks-will-open-gates-to-holders-of-conce/ |title=Parks open to holders of concealed guns |work=[[The Washington Times]] |access-date=March 15, 2010 }}</ref> ===Cybersecurity=== {{Siehe auch|Cyberwarfare in the United States}} [[Cybersecurity]] emerged as an important issue during Obama's presidency. In 2009, the Obama administration established [[United States Cyber Command]], an armed forces sub-unified command charged with defending the military against cyber attacks.<ref name=jgould>{{cite news|last1=Gould|first1=Joe|title=Constructing a Cyber Superpower|url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/cyber/2015/06/27/us-cyber-command-budget-expand-fort-meade-offensive/28829321/|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=Defense News|date=June 29, 2015}}</ref> [[Sony Pictures Entertainment|Sony Pictures]] suffered a [[Sony Pictures Entertainment hack|major hack]] in 2014, which the US government alleges originated from [[North Korea]] in retaliation for the release of the film ''[[The Interview]]''.<ref name=cbennett/> China also developed sophisticated cyber-warfare forces.<ref name=sharris>{{cite news|last1=Harris|first1=Shane |author-link=Shane Harris|title=China Reveals Its Cyberwar Secrets|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/03/18/china-reveals-its-cyber-war-secrets.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=Daily Beast|date=March 18, 2015}}</ref> In 2015, Obama declared cyber-attacks on the US a national emergency.<ref name=cbennett>{{cite news|last1=Bennett|first1=Cory|title=Obama declares cyberattacks a 'national emergency'|url=http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/237581-obama-declares-cyberattacks-a-national-emergency|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Hill|date=April 1, 2015}}</ref> Later that year, Obama signed the [[Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act]] into law.<ref name=trisen>{{cite news|last1=Risen|first1=Tom|title=Obama Signs Cybersecurity Law In Spending Package|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015-12-18/obama-signs-cybersecurity-law-in-spending-package|access-date=December 19, 2015|publisher=US News and World Report|date=December 18, 2015}}</ref> In 2016, the [[Democratic National Committee]] and other US organizations were [[Democratic National Committee cyber attacks|hacked]],<ref name="rothpriest1">{{cite news|last1=Roth|first1=Andrew|last2=Priest|first2=Dana|title=Putin wants revenge and respect, and hacking the U.S. is his way of getting it|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russian-hacking-a-question-of-revenge-and-respect/2016/09/15/8bcc8d7e-7511-11e6-9781-49e591781754_story.html|access-date=September 16, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 16, 2016}}</ref> and the FBI and CIA concluded that Russia sponsored the hacking in hopes of helping Donald Trump win the 2016 presidential election.<ref name="gmilleraentous1">{{cite news|last1=Miller|first1=Greg|last2=Entous|first2=Adam|title=Declassified report says Putin 'ordered' effort to undermine faith in U.S. election and help Trump|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/intelligence-chiefs-expected-in-new-york-to-brief-trump-on-russian-hacking/2017/01/06/5f591416-d41a-11e6-9cb0-54ab630851e8_story.html|access-date=January 7, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 6, 2017}}</ref> The [[email]] accounts of other prominent individuals, including former Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] and CIA Director [[John O. Brennan]], were also hacked, leading to new fears about the confidentiality of emails.<ref name="shearhacking1">{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|last2=Fandos|first2=Nicholas|title=Concern Over Colin Powell's Hacked Emails Becomes a Fear of Being Next|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/16/us/politics/email-hacking-colin-powell-congress.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 15, 2016}}</ref> ===Racial issues=== {{Siehe auch|Race and ethnicity in the United States}} [[File:Beer summit cheers.jpg|thumb|"Beer Summit" at the White House, July 30, 2009]] In his speeches as president, Obama did not make more overt references to race relations than his predecessors,<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-0544387669|title=The Black Presidency: Barack Obama and the Politics of Race in America|last1=Dyson|first1=Michael Eric|year=2016|page=275}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/governing-with-words/5D4F713A016401E3FC3922C66D371FF2|title=Governing with Words|last=Gillion|first=Daniel Q.|date=2016|website=Cambridge Core|language=en|access-date=June 5, 2019}}</ref> but according to one study, he implemented stronger policy action on behalf of African-Americans than any president since the Nixon era.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=Bennett|last2=Mendelberg|first2=Tali|last3=Haines|first3=Pavielle E.|date=2019|title="I'm Not the President of Black America": Rhetorical versus Policy Representation|journal=Perspectives on Politics|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=1038–1058|doi=10.1017/S1537592719000963|issn=1537-5927|doi-access=free}}</ref> Following Obama's election, many pondered the existence of a "postracial America."<ref name="wrodgers" /><ref name="shearalcindor1">{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|last2=Alcindor|first2=Yamiche|title=Jolted by Deaths, Obama Found His Voice on Race|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/14/us/politics/obama-presidency-race.html|access-date=January 17, 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 14, 2017}}</ref> However, lingering racial tensions quickly became apparent,<ref name="wrodgers">{{cite news|last1=Rodgers|first1=Walter|title=A year into Obama's presidency, is America postracial?|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Walter-Rodgers/2010/0105/A-year-into-Obama-s-presidency-is-America-postracial|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=January 5, 2010}}</ref><ref name="ccil2">{{cite news|last1=Cillizza|first1=Chris|title=President Obama's vision of post-racial America faces another stress test with Ferguson|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2014/08/14/president-obamas-desire-to-reshape-race-relations-runs-into-stark-realities/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=August 14, 2014}}</ref> and many African-Americans expressed outrage over what they saw as "racial venom" directed at Obama's presidency.<ref name="jblake">{{cite news|last1=Blake|first1=John|title=What black America won't miss about Obama|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/30/politics/why-black-america-may-be-relieved-to-see-obama-go/|access-date=July 7, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=July 1, 2016}}</ref> In July 2009, prominent African-American [[Harvard University|Harvard]] professor [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]], was arrested at his [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] home by a local police officer, sparking a [[Henry Louis Gates arrest controversy|controversy]] after Obama stated that the police acted "stupidly" in handling the incident. To reduce tensions, Obama invited Gates and the police officer to the White House in what became known as the "Beer Summit".<ref>{{cite web |title=Obama Called Police Officer Who Arrested Gates, Still Sees 'Overreaction' in Arrest|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=8163051&page=1|last1=Khan|first1=Huma|last2=McPhee|first2=Michele|last3=Goldman|first3=Russell|date=July 24, 2009 |access-date=December 7, 2010}}</ref> Several other incidents during Obama's presidency sparked outrage in the [[African-American]] community and/or the law enforcement community, and Obama sought to build trust between law enforcement officials and civil rights activists.<ref name="bridgethedivide">{{cite news|last1=Hirschfield Davis|first1=Julie|title=Obama Urges Civil Rights Activists and Police to Bridge Divide|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/us/politics/tensions-between-police-and-blacks-are-likely-to-worsen-obama-says.html|access-date=July 23, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=July 13, 2016}}</ref> The [[Trial of George Zimmerman|acquittal]] of [[George Zimmerman]] following the [[shooting of Trayvon Martin]] sparked national outrage, leading to Obama giving a speech in which he noted that "Trayvon Martin could have been me 35 years ago."<ref name="ccilliza">{{cite news|last1=Cillizza|first1=Chris|title=President Obama's remarkably personal speech on Trayvon Martin and race in America|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2013/07/19/president-obamas-remarkably-personal-speech-on-trayvon-martin-and-race-in-america/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=July 19, 2013}}</ref> The shooting of [[Shooting of Michael Brown|Michael Brown]] in [[Ferguson, Missouri]] [[Ferguson unrest|sparked a wave of protests]].<ref name="capeheart2">{{cite news|last1=Capeheart|first1=Jonathan|title=From Trayvon Martin to 'black lives matter'|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-partisan/wp/2015/02/27/from-trayvon-martin-to-black-lives-matter/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=February 27, 2015}}</ref> These and other events led to the birth of the [[Black Lives Matter]] movement, which campaigns against violence and [[Institutional racism|systemic racism]] toward [[black people]].<ref name="capeheart2" /> Some in the law enforcement community criticized Obama's condemnation of racial bias after incidents in which police action led to the death of African-American men, while some racial justice activists criticized Obama's expressions of empathy for the police.<ref name="bridgethedivide" /> Though Obama entered office reluctant to talk about race, by 2014 he began openly discussing the disadvantages faced by many members of minority groups.<ref name="pbacon">{{cite news|last1=Bacon Jr.|first1=Perry|title=In Wake of Police Shootings, Obama Speaks More Bluntly About Race|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/politics/barack-obama/wake-police-shootings-obama-speaks-more-bluntly-about-race-n278616|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=January 3, 2015}}</ref> In a March 2016 Gallup poll, nearly one third of Americans said they worried "a great deal" about race relations, a higher figure than in any previous Gallup poll since 2001.<ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. Worries About Race Relations Reach a New High|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/190574/worries-race-relations-reach-new-high.aspx?g_source=race%20obama&g_medium=search&g_campaign=tiles|access-date=December 5, 2016|publisher=Gallup|date=April 11, 2016}}</ref> ===NASA=== {{Hauptartikel|Space policy of the Barack Obama administration}} [[File:President Obama speaks at Kennedy Space Center.jpg|thumb|President Obama speaks at [[Kennedy Space Center]], April 15, 2010.]] In July 2009, Obama appointed [[Charles Bolden]], a former astronaut, as [[NASA]] Administrator.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8154525.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Ex-astronaut Bolden to lead Nasa|date=July 16, 2009}}</ref> That same year, Obama set up the [[Augustine panel]] to review the [[Constellation program]]. In February 2010, Obama announced that he was cutting the program from the [[2011 United States federal budget]], describing it as "over budget, behind schedule, and lacking in innovation."<ref name="BBC cancels Moon return">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8489097.stm|access-date=March 7, 2010|title=Obama cancels Moon return project |work=BBC News | date=February 1, 2010 | first=Jonathan | last=Amos}}</ref><ref name="WashPost eliminates funds">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/31/AR2010013101058.html|title=NASA budget for 2011 eliminates funds for manned lunar missions|work=The Washington Post |date=February 1, 2010|access-date=February 1, 2010 | first=Joel | last=Achenbach}}</ref> After the decision drew criticism in the United States, a new "Flexible path to [[Mars]]" plan was unveiled at a space conference in April 2010.<ref name="misswi">{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/37907917|author=Clara Moskowitz|title=Misconceptions swirl around Obama space plan |work=NBC News |date=June 24, 2010|access-date=July 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf|title=Review of U.S. Plans Committee|publisher=Human Space Flights Committee|access-date=July 7, 2010}}</ref> It included new technology programs, increased R&D spending, an increase in NASA's 2011 budget from $18.3 billion to $19 billion, a focus on the [[International Space Station]], and plans to contract future transportation to [[Low Earth orbit]] to private companies.<ref name="misswi"/> During Obama's presidency, NASA designed the [[Space Launch System]] and developed the [[Commercial Crew Development]] and [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] to cooperate with private space flight companies.<ref name=achspace/><ref name=mwall>{{cite news|last1=Wall|first1=Mike|title=White House unveils new US space transportation policy|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/white-house-unveils-new-us-space-transportation-policy-2D11644133|access-date=November 19, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=November 22, 2013}}</ref> These private companies, including [[SpaceX]], [[Virgin Galactic]], [[Blue Origin]], [[Boeing]], and [[Bigelow Aerospace]], became increasingly active during Obama's presidency.<ref name="cdavenport1">{{cite news|last1=Davenport|first1=Christian|title=How Obama brought capitalism to outer space|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/10/11/how-obama-brought-capitalism-to-outer-space/|access-date=October 12, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=October 11, 2016}}</ref> The [[Space Shuttle program]] ended in 2011, and NASA relied on the [[Russian space program]] to launch its astronauts into orbit for the remainder of the Obama administration.<ref name=achspace>{{cite news|last1=Achenbach|first1=Joel|title=Which way to space?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2013/11/23/which-way-to-space/|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 23, 2013}}</ref><ref name="dmosher1">{{cite news|last1=Mosher|first1=Dave|title=Russia is squeezing NASA for more than $3.3 billion — and there's little anyone can do about it|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/astronaut-cost-per-soyuz-seat-2016-9|access-date=October 12, 2016|publisher=Business Insider|date=September 2, 2016}}</ref> Obama's presidency also saw the launch of the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] and the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. In 2016, Obama called on the United States to [[Human mission to Mars|land a human]] on [[Mars]] by the 2030s.<ref name="cdavenport1"/> ===Other initiatives=== Obama took steps to promote various technologies and the technological prowess of the United States. The number of American adults using the [[internet]] grew from 74% in 2008 to 84% in 2013,<ref name=aperrin>{{cite news|last1=Perrin|first1=Andrew|title=Americans' Internet Access: 2000–2015|url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/06/26/americans-internet-access-2000-2015/|access-date=January 21, 2016|publisher=Pew|date=June 26, 2015}}</ref> and Obama pushed programs to extend [[broadband internet]] to lower income Americans.<ref name=kzez>{{cite news|last1=Zezima|first1=Katie|title=Obama announces pilot program to expand broadband to low-income households|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/07/15/obama-to-announce-pilot-program-to-expand-broadband-to-low-income-households/|access-date=January 21, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=July 15, 2015}}</ref> Over the opposition of many Republicans, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] began regulating [[internet provider]]s as [[public utility|public utilities]], with the goal of protecting "[[net neutrality]]."<ref name=ruizneut>{{cite news|last1=Ruiz|first1=Rebecca|title=F.C.C. Sets Net Neutrality Rules|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/technology/fcc-releases-net-neutrality-rules.html|access-date=January 21, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=March 12, 2015}}</ref> Obama launched [[18F]] and the [[United States Digital Service]], two organizations devoted to modernizing government [[information technology]].<ref name=bnaylor>{{cite news|last1=Naylor|first1=Brian|title=Remaking The U.S. Government's Online Image, One Website At A Time|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2015/01/28/382178574/remaking-the-u-s-governments-online-image-one-website-at-a-time|access-date=January 19, 2016|publisher=NPR|date=February 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name=apete>{{cite news|last1=Peterson|first1=Andrea|title=How the government tries to recruit hackers on their own turf|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/10/24/how-the-government-tries-to-recruit-hackers-on-their-own-turf/|access-date=January 19, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=October 24, 2015}}</ref> The stimulus package included money to build [[High-speed rail in the United States|high-speed rail]] networks such as the proposed [[Florida High Speed Corridor]], but political resistance and funding problems stymied those efforts.<ref name=laing>{{cite news|last1=Laing|first1=Keith|title=Obama's proposed high-speed rail network stuck in station|url=http://thehill.com/policy/transportation/263782-obama-high-speed-rail-stuck-in-station|access-date=January 19, 2016|work=The Hill|date=December 20, 2015}}</ref> In January 2016, Obama announced a plan to invest $4 billion in the development of [[autonomous car|self-driving cars]], as well as an initiative by the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] to develop regulations for self-driving cars.<ref name=trisensdc>{{cite news|last1=Risen|first1=Tom|title=Obama to Propose $4 Billion for Self-Driving Cars|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-01-14/obama-to-propose-4-billion-for-self-driving-cars|access-date=January 19, 2016|publisher=US News and World Report|date=January 14, 2016}}</ref> That same month, Obama called for a national effort led by Vice President Biden to develop a [[cancer research|cure]] for [[cancer]].<ref name=ferrisca>{{cite news|last1=Ferris|first1=Sarah|title=Obama vows to cure cancer 'once and for all'|url=http://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/265671-obama-launches-effort-to-cure-cancer-once-and-for-all|access-date=January 19, 2016|work=The Hill|date=January 12, 2016}}</ref> On October 19, 2016, Biden spoke at the [[Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate]] at the [[University of Massachusetts Boston]] to speak about the administration's cancer initiative.<ref>{{cite news|title=Getting to the Point: A Conversation with Vice President Joe Biden on the Cancer Moonshot Initiative|publisher=[[Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate]]|url=https://www.emkinstitute.org/resources/bidencancermoonshot2016|date=October 19, 2016|access-date=August 20, 2017}}</ref> A 2020 study in the ''[[The American Economic Review|American Economic Review]]'' found that the decision by the Obama administration to issue press releases that named and shamed facilities that violated OSHA safety and health regulations led other facilities to increase their compliance and to experience fewer workplace injuries. The study estimated that each press release had the same effect on compliance as 210 inspections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Matthew S.|date=2020|title=Regulation by Shaming: Deterrence Effects of Publicizing Violations of Workplace Safety and Health Laws|url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180501|journal=American Economic Review|language=en|volume=110|issue=6|pages=1866–1904|doi=10.1257/aer.20180501|issn=0002-8282|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=When It Comes to Workplace Safety, Shaming Works|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-03-09/osha-shaming-tactic-improved-workplace-safety-before-trump|website=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref> ==Foreign affairs== {{Hauptartikel|Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration}} {{Siehe auch|List of presidential trips made by Barack Obama}} The Obama administration inherited a [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], a [[Iraq War|war in Iraq]], and a global "[[War on Terror]]," all launched by Congress during the term of President [[George W. Bush|Bush]] in the aftermath of the [[September 11 attacks]]. Upon taking office, Obama called for a "[[A New Beginning|new beginning]]" in relations between the [[Muslim world]] and the United States,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/06/04/egypt.obama.speech/index.html |publisher=CNN |title=Obama in Egypt reaches out to Muslim world |access-date=May 22, 2010 |date=June 4, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/05/world/middleeast/05prexy.html |work=The New York Times |title=Addressing Muslims, Obama Pushes Mideast Peace |first1=Jeff |last1=Zeleny |first2=Alan |last2=Cowell |date=June 5, 2009 |access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> and he discontinued the use of the term "War on Terror" in favor of the term "Overseas Contingency Operation."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Inauguration/story?id=6689022&page=1 |title=Inaugural Address |work=ABC News |date=January 20, 2009 |access-date=April 14, 2012}}</ref> Obama pursued a "light footprint" military strategy in the Middle East that emphasized [[special forces]], drone strikes, and diplomacy over large [[infantry|ground troop]] occupations.<ref name="lightfoot">{{cite news |last1=Sanger|first1=David|title=Even With a 'Light Footprint,' It's Hard to Sidestep the Middle East|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/18/world/middle-east-challenges-obamas-light-footprint.html|access-date=February 10, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=November 17, 2012}}</ref> However, American forces continued to clash with Islamic militant organizations such as [[al-Qaeda]], [[ISIL]], and [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|al-Shabaab]]<ref name=eilperin5>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|title=Obama commits U.S. to intensified fight against terrorists in East Africa|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-to-expand-support-in-kenya-somalia-for-counterterrorism-operations/2015/07/25/b6f386f0-3210-11e5-97ae-30a30cca95d7_story.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=July 25, 2015}}</ref> under the terms of the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists|AUMF]] passed by Congress in 2001.<ref name=swong>{{cite news|last1=Wong|first1=Scott|title=GOP: Obama war request is dead |url=http://thehill.com/policy/defense/238619-gop-obama-war-request-is-dead|access-date=December 18, 2015|work=The Hill |date=April 13, 2015}}</ref> Though the Middle East remained important to American foreign policy, Obama pursued a "[[East Asian foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration|pivot]]" to [[East Asia]].<ref name="FP Pacific Century">{{cite news |last=Clinton |first=Hillary|title=America's Pacific Century|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/10/11/americas_pacific_century|access-date=June 7, 2013|newspaper=Foreign Policy|date=November 2011}}</ref><ref name=bbcpivot>{{cite news|title=Barack Obama says Asia-Pacific is 'top US priority'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15715446|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=BBC|date=November 17, 2011}}</ref> Obama also emphasized closer relations with [[India]], and was the first president to visit the country twice.<ref name=kumar>{{cite news|last1=Kumar|first1=Nikhil|title=5 Things You Need to Know About Obama's Visit to India|url=http://time.com/3679945/barack-obama-india-narendra-modi-5-things/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=January 23, 2015}}</ref> An advocate for [[nuclear non-proliferation]], Obama successfully negotiated arms-reduction deals with Iran and Russia.<ref name=cparsons>{{cite news|last1=Parsons|first1=Christi|title=Iran nuclear deal is key to Obama's nonproliferation agenda |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-obama-nuclear-2-20150404-story.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=Los Angeles Times|date=April 3, 2015}}</ref> In 2015, Obama described the [[Obama Doctrine]], saying "we will [[Engagement (diplomacy)|engage]], but we preserve all our capabilities."<ref name=tfriedman>{{cite news|last1=Friedman|first1=Thomas|title=Iran and the Obama Doctrine|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/06/opinion/thomas-friedman-the-obama-doctrine-and-iran-interview.html?ref=opinion&_r=0|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=April 5, 2015}}</ref> Obama also described himself as an [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalist]] who rejected [[isolationism]] and was influenced by [[Realism (international relations)|realism]] and [[Liberal internationalism|liberal interventionism]].<ref name="goldbergdoctrine">{{cite news|last1=Goldberg|first1=Jeffrey|title=The Obama Doctrine|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/|access-date=August 2, 2016|work=The Atlantic|date=April 2016}}</ref> ===Iraq and Afghanistan=== {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; |+ Troop levels in Iraq and Afghanistan<ref>The table shows the number of American troops in Iraq and Afghanistan at the beginning of each year. Troop numbers for 2007 and 2008 are included as a reference.</ref> |- ! Year ! [[Iraq War|Iraq]] ! [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]] |- ! ''2007*'' | 137,000<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> | 26,000<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> |- ! ''2008*'' | 154,000<ref name=nyttrooplevels>{{cite web|title=American Forces in Afghanistan and Iraq|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/06/22/world/asia/american-forces-in-afghanistan-and-iraq.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=November 15, 2015}}</ref> | 27,500<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> |- ! 2009 | 139,500<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> | 34,400<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> |- ! 2010 | 107,100<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> | 71,700<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> |- ! 2011 | 47,000<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> | 97,000<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> |- ! 2012 | 150<ref name=jlogan /> | 91,000<ref name=afgh2012>{{cite news|title=Tens of thousands at St. Louis parade honor Iraq War vets|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-01-28/iraq-war-parade/52843354/1|access-date=November 15, 2015|agency=Associated Press|work=USA Today|date=January 28, 2012}}</ref> |- ! 2013 | ≈150 | 66,000<ref name=bratu>{{cite news|last1=Bratu|first1=Becky|title=US troops to move into support role in Afghanistan in the spring, Obama says|url=http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/01/11/16466104-us-troops-to-move-into-support-role-in-afghanistan-in-the-spring-obama-says?lite|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=January 11, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020459/http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/01/11/16466104-us-troops-to-move-into-support-role-in-afghanistan-in-the-spring-obama-says?lite|archive-date=November 17, 2015}}</ref> |- ! 2014 | ≈150 | 38,000<ref name=afgh104>{{cite news|title=How many U.S. troops are still in Afghanistan?|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/how-many-us-troops-are-still-in-afghanistan/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=CBS News|date=January 9, 2014}}</ref> |- ! 2015 | 2,100<ref name=mtan>{{cite news|last1=Tan|first1=Michelle|title=400 U.S. troops will deploy to train Syrian opposition|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/01/16/400-us-troops-will-deploy-to-train-syrian-opposition/21848307/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=USA Today|date=January 16, 2015}}</ref> | 12,000<ref name=dphillips>{{cite news|last1=Phillips|first1=Dave|title=Mission Ends in Afghanistan, but Sacrifices Are Not Over for U.S. Soldiers|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/01/us/mission-ends-but-sacrifices-are-not-over-for-us-soldiers.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 31, 2014}}</ref> |- ! 2016 | 4,450<ref name="youssef">{{cite news|last1=Youssef|first1=Nancy A.|title=Pentagon Won't Say How Many Troops Are Fighting ISIS|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/02/02/pentagon-won-t-say-how-many-troops-are-fighting-isis.html|access-date=May 15, 2016|publisher=The Daily Beast|date=February 2, 2016|quote=Officially, there are now 3,650 U.S. troops in Iraq, there primarily to help train the Iraqi national army. But in reality, there are already about 4,450 U.S. troops in Iraq, plus another nearly 7,000 contractors supporting the American government’s operations.}}</ref> | 9,800<ref name="Jaffe1">{{cite news|last1=Jaffe|first1=Greg|last2=Ryan|first2=Misse|title=The U.S. was supposed to leave Afghanistan by 2017. Now it might take decades.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/01/26/the-u-s-was-supposed-to-leave-afghanistan-by-2017-now-it-might-take-decades/|access-date=May 15, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 26, 2016}}</ref> |- ! 2017 | 5,200<ref name="iraq2017">{{cite news|last1=Kalin|first1=Steven|title=Deja vu for U.S. troops celebrating Christmas in Iraq again|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-usa-christmas-idUSKBN14E0GV|access-date=January 4, 2017|publisher=Reuters|date=December 25, 2016}}</ref> | 8,400<ref name="atilghman1" /> |} {{Hauptartikel|Iraq War|War in Afghanistan (2001–present)}} [[File:Barack Obama speaks to US troops at Camp Victory 4-7-09 1.JPG|thumb|President Obama speaks with U.S. troops at [[Camp Victory]], Iraq, April 2009]] During the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008 presidential election]], Obama strongly criticized the [[Iraq War]],<ref name=broder>{{cite news|last1=Broder|first1=John |title=Obama and McCain Duel Over Iraq|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/16/us/politics/15cnd-obama.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 16, 2008}}</ref> and Obama withdrew the vast majority of U.S. soldiers in Iraq by late 2011. On taking office, Obama announced that U.S. combat forces would [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|leave Iraq]] by August 2010, with 35,000–50,000 American soldiers remaining in Iraq as advisers and trainers,<ref name=deyoung>{{cite news|last1=DeYoung|first1=Karen |title=Obama Sets Timetable for Iraq Withdrawal, Calling It Part of Broader Middle East Strategy |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/02/27/AR2009022700566.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=February 28, 2009}}</ref> down from the roughly 150,000 American soldiers in Iraq in early 2009.<ref name=infigures>{{cite news|title=Iraq War in figures|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-11107739|access-date=November 13, 2015 |publisher=BBC|date=December 14, 2011}}</ref> In 2008, President Bush had signed the [[U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement]], in which the United States committed to withdrawing all forces by late 2011.<ref name="afordhamiraq1">{{cite news |last1=Fordham|first1=Alice|title=Fact Check: Did Obama Withdraw From Iraq Too Soon, Allowing ISIS To Grow?|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/12/19/459850716/fact-check-did-obama-withdraw-from-iraq-too-soon-allowing-isis-to-grow|access-date=December 6, 2016 |publisher=NPR |date=December 19, 2015}}</ref><ref name="lcarrollwars1">{{cite news|last1=Carroll|first1=Lauren|title=Obama aimed to end wars, but U.S. is still entangled in Iraq, Afghanistan|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/article125501474.html|access-date=January 17, 2017|work=Miami Herald|date=January 9, 2017}}</ref> Obama attempted to convince Iraqi Prime Minister [[Nouri al-Maliki]] to allow U.S. soldiers to stay past 2011, but the large presence of American soldiers was unpopular with most Iraqis.<ref name="afordhamiraq1" /> By late-December 2011, only 150 American soldiers remained to serve at the [[Embassy of the United States, Baghdad|US embassy]].<ref name=jlogan>{{cite news|last1=Logan|first1=Joseph|title=Last U.S. troops leave Iraq, ending war|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/18/us-iraq-withdrawal-idUSTRE7BH03320111218|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=Reuters|date=December 18, 2011}}</ref> However, in 2014, the U.S. began a [[American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)|campaign]] against [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]], an Islamic extremist terrorist group operating in Iraq and Syria that grew dramatically after the withdrawal of U.S. soldiers from Iraq and the start of the [[Syrian Civil War]].<ref name=abc7Aug14>{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/us-begins-humanitarian-airdrops-iraq/story?id=24884633|title=Obama Authorizes Air Strikes in Iraq |work=ABC News|date=August 7, 2014|access-date=August 18, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Isis1" /> By June 2015, there were about 3500 American soldiers in Iraq serving as advisers to anti-ISIL forces in the [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)|Iraqi Civil War]],<ref name=bender>{{cite news |last1=Bender |first1=Bryan |title=Obama's Iraq Quagmire|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/06/iraq-barack-obama-us-military-combat-forces-islamic-state-118842|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=Politico|date=June 10, 2015}}</ref> and Obama left office with roughly 5,262 U.S. soldiers in Iraq and 503 of them in Syria.<ref name="parsonshennigan1">{{cite news|last1=Parsons|first1=Christi|last2=Hennigan |first2=WJ|title=President Obama, who hoped to sow peace, instead led the nation in war|url=https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-na-pol-obama-at-war/|access-date=January 18, 2017|work=Los Angeles Times|date=January 13, 2017}}</ref> Obama increased the number of American soldiers in Afghanistan during his first term before withdrawing most military personnel in his second term. On taking office, Obama announced that the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|U.S. military presence in Afghanistan]] would be bolstered by 17,000 new troops by Summer 2009,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25074581-2703,00.html|title=Obama launches Afghanistan surge|work=The Australian|date=February 19, 2009|first=Amanda|last=Hodge|access-date=February 27, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219134205/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25074581-2703,00.html|archive-date=February 19, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> on top of the roughly 30,000 soldiers already in Afghanistan at the start of 2009.<ref name=tyson>{{cite news |last1=Tyson|first1=Ann Scott|title=Number of U.S. Troops in Afghanistan Overlooks Thousands of Support Troops |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/12/AR2009101203142.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=October 13, 2009}}</ref> Secretary of Defense [[Robert Gates]], Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]], and Joint Chiefs of Staff Chair [[Michael Mullen]] all argued for further troops, and Obama dispatched additional soldiers after a lengthy review process.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gates: More Troops For Afghanistan|publisher=news10.net|date=January 27, 2009|url=http://www.news10.net/news/national/story.aspx?storyid=53827|access-date=December 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907084138/http://www.news10.net/news/national/story.aspx?storyid=53827|archive-date=September 7, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=pbaker>{{cite news|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|title=How Obama Came to Plan for 'Surge' in Afghanistan|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/asia/06reconstruct.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 5, 2009}}</ref> The number of American soldiers in Afghanistan would peak at 100,000 in 2010.<ref name=nyttrooplevels /> In 2012, the U.S. and Afghanistan signed a [[U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|strategic partnership agreement]] in which the U.S. agreed to hand over major combat operation to Afghan forces.<ref name="landler1">{{cite news |last=Landler|first=Mark|title=Obama Signs Pact in Kabul, Turning Page in Afghan War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/02/world/asia/obama-lands-in-kabul-on-unannounced-visit.html?_r=2&ref=barackobama|access-date=May 4, 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 1, 2012}}</ref> That same year, the Obama administration designated Afghanistan as a [[major non-NATO ally]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hillary Clinton says Afghanistan 'major non-Nato ally'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|access-date=July 7, 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|date=July 7, 2012}}</ref> In 2014, Obama announced that most troops would [[Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan|leave Afghanistan]] by late 2016, with a small force remaining at the [[Embassy of the United States, Kabul|US embassy]].<ref name=landler2>{{cite news|last1=Landler|first1=Mark|title=U.S. Troops to Leave Afghanistan by End of 2016|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/28/world/asia/us-to-complete-afghan-pullout-by-end-of-2016-obama-to-say.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=May 27, 2014}}</ref> In September 2014, [[Mohammad Ashraf Ghani|Ashraf Ghani]] succeeded [[Hamid Karzai]] as the [[President of Afghanistan]] after the U.S. helped negotiate a power-sharing agreement between Ghani and [[Abdullah Abdullah]].<ref name=rnordland>{{cite news|last1=Nordland|first1=Rod|title=President Ashraf Ghani of Afghanistan Is Sworn In, Even as He Shares the Stage |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/30/international-home/ashraf-ghani-sworn-in-as-afghan-president.html|access-date=November 19, 2015 |work=The New York Times|date=September 29, 2014}}</ref> On January 1, 2015, the U.S. military ended [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and began [[Resolute Support Mission]], in which the U.S. shifted to more of a training role, although some combat operations continued.<ref name=tbowman>{{cite news|last1=Bowman|first1=Tom|title=After Years Of Conflict, U.S. Mission Shifts In Afghanistan |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/12/31/374216408/after-years-of-conflict-u-s-mission-shifts-in-afghanistan |access-date=November 19, 2015|publisher=NPR|date=January 1, 2015}}</ref> In October 2015, Obama announced that U.S. soldiers would remain in Afghanistan indefinitely in order support the Afghan government in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|civil war]] against the [[Taliban]], al-Qaeda, and [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province|ISIL]].<ref name=rosenberg>{{cite news |last1=Rosenberg|first1=Matthew|title=In Reversal, Obama Says U.S. Soldiers Will Stay in Afghanistan to 2017|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/16/world/asia/obama-troop-withdrawal-afghanistan.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=October 15, 2015}}</ref> Joint Chiefs of Staff Chair [[Martin Dempsey]] framed the decision to keep soldiers in Afghanistan as part of a long-term [[counter-terrorism]] operation stretching across [[Central Asia]].<ref name="landlerafghanwar1">{{cite news |last1=Landler |first1=Mark|title=The Afghan War and the Evolution of Obama|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/01/world/asia/obama-afghanistan-war.html|access-date=January 2, 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 1, 2017}}</ref> Obama left office with roughly 8,400 U.S. soldiers remaining in Afghanistan.<ref name="atilghman1">{{cite news|last1=Tilghman|first1=Andrew|title=New in 2017: Big decisions for the wars in Iraq, Syria and Afghanistan|url=http://www.militarytimes.com/articles/donald-trump-iraq-syria-afghanistan-james-mattis|access-date=January 2, 2017|work=Military Times|date=December 26, 2016}}</ref> ===East Asia=== {{Siehe auch|East Asian foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration}} Though other areas of the world remained important to American foreign policy, Obama pursued a "pivot" to [[East Asia]], focusing the U.S.'s diplomacy and trade in the region.<ref name="FP Pacific Century"/><ref name="bbcpivot"/> China's continued [[China as an emerging superpower|emergence]] as a [[Great power|major power]] was a major issue of Obama's presidency; while the two countries worked together on issues such as climate change, the [[China–United States relations|China-United States relationship]] also experienced tensions regarding [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|territorial claims]] in the [[South China Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]].<ref name="nakamurascs">{{cite news|last1=Nakamura|first1=David|title=China testing Obama as it expands its influence in Southeast Asia|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/china-testing-obama-as-it-expands-its-influence-in-southeast-asia/2016/03/01/d60e1248-dbdf-11e5-891a-4ed04f4213e8_story.html|access-date=April 25, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=March 1, 2016}}</ref> In 2016, the United States hosted a summit with the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) for the first time, reflecting the Obama administration's pursuit of closer relations with ASEAN and other Asian countries.<ref name="jmakinen">{{cite news|last1=Makinen|first1=Julie|title=Obama hosts ASEAN summit, a first in the U.S.|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-asean-summit-qa-20160215-story.html|access-date=September 12, 2016|work=LA Times|date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> After helping to encourage openly contested [[2015 Myanmar general election|elections]] in [[Myanmar]], Obama lifted many US sanctions on Myanmar.<ref name=agowen>{{cite news|last1=Gowen|first1=Annie|title=Burma victory caps a decades-long battle for opposition leader Suu Kyi|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/burmas-opposition-party-clinches-landslide-election-victory/2015/11/13/c1ff23c6-8984-11e5-bd91-d385b244482f_story.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="davismyanmar">{{cite news|last1=Hirschfield Davis|first1=Julie|title=Obama Pledges to Lift All Sanctions Against Myanmar|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/15/world/asia/myanmar-obama.html|access-date=September 15, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 14, 2016}}</ref> Obama also increased US military ties with [[Vietnam]],<ref name="ap1">{{cite news|last1=Ap|first1=Tiffany|last2=Rizzo|first2=Jennifer|last3=Liptak|first3=Kevin|title=Obama lifts U.S. arms ban on Vietnam|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/23/politics/obama-vietnam-trip/|access-date=August 2, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=May 23, 2016}}</ref> [[Australia]], and the [[Philippines]], increased aid to [[Laos]], and contributed to a warming of relations between [[South Korea]] and [[Japan]].<ref name="nakamura9816">{{cite news|last1=Nakamura|first1=David|title=An incomplete victory lap for Obama on his final presidential trip to Asia|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/no-victory-lap-for-obama-on-his-final-presidential-trip-to-asia/2016/09/08/fb9a56ce-75d2-11e6-b786-19d0cb1ed06c_story.html|access-date=September 9, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 8, 2016}}</ref> Obama designed the [[Trans-Pacific Partnership]] as the key economic pillar of the Asian pivot, though the agreement remains unratified.<ref name="nakamura9816"/> Obama made little progress with [[North Korea–United States relations|relations]] with [[North Korea]], a long-time adversary of the United States, and North Korea continued to develop its [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|WMD program]].<ref name="NK9916">{{cite news|last1=Hang-Sun|first1=Choe|last2=Perlez|first2=Jane|title=North Korea Tests a Nuclear Device, South Says|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/09/world/asia/north-korea-nuclear-test.html|access-date=September 9, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 8, 2016}}</ref> ===Russia=== {{Siehe auch|NATO–Russia relations}} [[File:Dmitry Medvedev 1 April 2009-1.jpg|thumb|right|The first meeting between [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and [[Barack Obama]] before the [[2009 G-20 London summit|G20 summit]] in London on April 1, 2009]] On taking office, Obama called for a "[[Russian reset|reset]]" in [[Russia–United States relations|relations]] with [[Russia]], which had declined following the 2008 [[Russo-Georgian War]].<ref name=Dorning /> While President [[George W. Bush|Bush]] had successfully pushed for [[NATO]] [[expansion of NATO|expansion]] into former [[Eastern bloc]] states, the early Obama era saw NATO put more of an emphasis on creating a long-term partnership with Russia.<ref name=mjohn>{{cite news|last1=John|first1=Mark|title=After Balkans duo, NATO enlargement to slow|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/01/us-nato-enlargement-sb-idUSTRE5304ZU20090401|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=Reuters|date=April 1, 2009}}</ref> Obama and [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]] worked together on a new treaty to reduce and monitor nuclear weapons, Russian accession to the [[World Trade Organization]], and counterterrorism.<ref name=Dorning>{{cite news|last1=Dorning|first1=Mike|title=Return Would Undermine Reset|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-19/obama-putin|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=February 19, 2015}}</ref> On April 8, 2010, Obama and Medvedev signed the [[New START]] treaty, a major [[Nuclear disarmament|nuclear arms control]] agreement that reduced the [[nuclear weapon]]s stockpiles of both countries and provided for a monitoring regime.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/04/08/obama.russia.treaty/index.html |title=Obama, Russian President Sign Arms Treaty |publisher=CNN |date=April 8, 2010 |access-date=April 8, 2010}}</ref> In December 2010, the Senate ratified New START in a 71–26 vote, with 13 Republicans and all Democrats voting in favor of the treaty.<ref name=sheridan>{{cite news|last1=Sheridan|first1=Mary Beth|title=Senate ratifies new U.S.-Russia nuclear weapons treaty|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/12/21/AR2010122104371.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> In 2012, Russia joined the [[World Trade Organization]] and Obama [[permanent normal trade relations|normalized]] trade relations with Russia.<ref name=dpalmer>{{cite news|last1=Palmer|first1=Doug|title=Obama grants Russia 'permanent normal trade relations'|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/20/us-usa-russia-trade-idUSBRE8BJ0XB20121220|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=Reuters|date=December 20, 2012}}</ref> US–Russia relations declined after [[Vladimir Putin]] returned to the presidency in 2012.<ref name=Dorning /> Russia's [[2014–15 Russian military intervention in Ukraine|intervention]] in [[Ukraine]] and [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation]] of [[Republic of Crimea|Crimea]] in response to the [[Euromaidan]] movement led to a strong [[International reactions to the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|condemnation]] by Obama and other Western leaders, who imposed [[International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis|sanctions]] on Russian leaders.<ref name=Dorning /><ref name=torbati>{{cite news|last1=Torbati|first1=Yeganeh|title=U.S. imposes more Russian and Ukrainian sanctions|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/07/30/us-usa-russia-sanctions-idUSKCN0Q42H720150730|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=Reuters|date=July 30, 2015}}</ref> The sanctions contributed to a [[Russian financial crisis (2014–present)|Russian financial crisis]].<ref name="russiafincrisis">{{cite news|last1=W|first1=C|last2=O|first2=A|title=What's gone wrong with Russia's economy|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2014/12/economist-explains-16|access-date=August 19, 2016|publisher=The Economist|date=December 16, 2014}}</ref> Some members of Congress from both parties also called for the US to arm Ukrainian forces, but Obama resisted becoming closely involved in the [[War in Donbass]].<ref name=steinhauer3>{{cite news|last1=Steinhauer|first1=Jennifer|title=Defying Obama, Many in Congress Press to Arm Ukraine|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/12/world/europe/defying-obama-many-in-congress-press-to-arm-ukraine.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 11, 2015}}</ref> In 2016, following several [[Computer security|cybersecurity]] incidents, the Obama administration formally accused [[Cyberwarfare in Russia|Russia]] of engaging in a [[2016 United States election interference by Russia|campaign to undermine the 2016 election]], and the administration imposed sanctions on some Russian-linked people and organizations.<ref name="sangerrussiasanctions1">{{cite news|last1=Sanger|first1=David|title=Obama Strikes Back at Russia for Election Hacking|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/29/us/politics/russia-election-hacking-sanctions.html|access-date=December 31, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=December 29, 2016}}</ref><ref name="secretstruggle">{{cite news|last1=Miller|first1=Greg|last2=Nakashima |first2=Ellen|last3=Entous|first3=Adam|title=Obama's secret struggle to punish Russia for Putin's election assault|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2017/world/national-security/obama-putin-election-hacking/|access-date=June 23, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=June 23, 2017}}</ref> In 2017, after Obama left office, [[Robert Mueller]] was appointed as [[Special prosecutor|special counsel]] to investigate Russian's involvement in the 2016 election, including [[Links between Trump associates and Russian officials|allegations of conspiracy or coordination]] between Trump's presidential campaign and Russia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ruiz |first1=Rebecca R. |last2=Landler |first2=Mark |title=Robert Mueller, Former F.B.I. Director, Is Named Special Counsel for Russia Investigation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/17/us/politics/robert-mueller-special-counsel-russia-investigation.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=May 17, 2017}}</ref> The [[Mueller Report]], released in 2019, concludes that Russia undertook a sustained social media campaign and cyberhacking operation to bolster the Trump campaign.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Polyakova |first1=Alina |title=What the Mueller Report Tells Us About Russian Influence Operations |url=https://www.lawfareblog.com/what-mueller-report-tells-us-about-russian-influence-operations |publisher=Lawfare |date=April 19, 2019}}</ref> The report did not reach a conclusion on allegations that the Trump campaign had colluded with Russia, but, according to Mueller, his investigation did not find evidence "sufficient to charge any member of the [Trump] campaign with taking part in a criminal conspiracy."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bump |first1=Philip |title=Robert Mueller kneecaps President Trump's no collusion, no obstruction mantra |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/07/24/robert-mueller-kneecaps-president-trumps-no-collusion-no-obstruction-mantra/ |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=July 24, 2019}}</ref> ===Israel=== The relationship between Obama and [[Israel]]i Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] (who held office for all but two months of Obama's presidency) was notably icy, with many commenting on their mutual distaste for each other.<ref name=jgoldberg>{{cite news |last1=Goldberg|first1=Jeffrey|title=Explaining the Toxic Obama-Netanyahu Marriage|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/10/dennis-ross-iran-obama-netanyahu/409420/|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Atlantic|date=October 9, 2015}}</ref><ref name=scollinson>{{cite news|last1=Collinson|first1=Stephen|title=The personal tension between Obama, Netanyahu|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/29/politics/obama-netanyahu-relationship/|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=October 30, 2014}}</ref> On taking office, Obama appointed [[George J. Mitchell]] as a special envoy to the Middle East to work towards a settlement of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], but Mitchell made little progress before stepping down in 2011.<ref name=mitchell>{{cite news|title=George Mitchell resigns as Middle East envoy|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/POLITICS/05/13/mitchell.mideast.envoy/|access-date=November 20, 2015 |publisher=CNN|date=May 13, 2011}}</ref> In March 2010, Secretary of State Clinton criticized the Israeli government for approving expansion of settlements in East Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8565455.stm |work=BBC News |title=Clinton rebukes Israel over homes |date=March 12, 2010 |access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref> Netanyahu strongly opposed Obama's efforts to negotiate with Iran and was seen as favoring [[Mitt Romney]] in the [[2012 United States presidential election|2012 US presidential election]].<ref name=jgoldberg/> However, Obama continued the US policy of vetoing [[United Nations|UN]] resolutions calling for a [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] state, and the administration continued to advocate for a negotiated [[two-state solution]].<ref name=jbresnahan>{{cite news|last1=Bresnahan|first1=John|title=Exclusive: Obama brushed off Reid's plea on Palestinian state |url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/10/reid-obama-israel-palestinians-netanyahu-united-nations-214011|access-date=November 15, 2015 |work=Politico|date=October 1, 2015}}</ref> Obama also increased aid to Israel, including funding for the [[Iron Dome]] air defense program.<ref name="ebenari1">{{cite news|last1=Benari|first1=Elad|title=Obama Signs Additional Funding for Iron Dome |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/183732|access-date=February 12, 2017|publisher=Arutz Sheva|date=May 18, 2014}}</ref> During Obama's last months in office, his administration chose not to veto [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334]], which urged the end of [[Israeli settlement]] in the [[Israeli-occupied territories|territories that Israel captured]] in the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967. The Obama administration argued that the abstention was consistent with long-standing American opposition to the expansion of settlements, while critics of the abstention argued that it abandoned a close U.S. ally.<ref name="israelabstention1">{{cite news |last1=Collinson|first1=Stephen|last2=Wright|first2=David|last3=Labott|first3=Elise|title=US abstains as UN demands end to Israeli settlements|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/23/politics/israel-official-rips-obama-un-settlements/index.html|access-date=December 25, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=December 24, 2016}}</ref> ===Trade agreements=== {{Siehe auch|United States free trade agreements}} [[File:FTAs with the United States.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The Obama administration maintained existing trade agreements and concluded new ones with [[Panama]], [[Colombia]], and [[South Korea]]]] Like his predecessor, Obama pursued [[free trade agreement]]s, in part due to the lack of progress at the [[Doha Development Round|Doha negotiations]] in lowering [[trade barrier]]s worldwide.<ref name=kgranville>{{cite news|last1=Granville|first1=Kevin|title=The Trans-Pacific Partnership Trade Deal Explained|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/12/business/unpacking-the-trans-pacific-partnership-trade-deal.html|access-date=December 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=May 11, 2015}}</ref> In October 2011, the United States entered into free trade agreements with [[United States–Colombia Free Trade Agreement|Colombia]], [[Panama–United States Trade Promotion Agreement|Panama]], and [[South Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement|South Korea]]. Congressional Republicans overwhelmingly supported the agreements, while Congressional Democrats cast a mix of votes.<ref name=applebaum/> The three agreements had originally been negotiated by the Bush administration, but Obama re-opened negotiations with each country and changed some terms of each deal.<ref name=applebaum>{{cite news|last1=Applebaum|first1=Binyamin|title=Congress Ends 5-Year Standoff on Trade Deals in Rare Accord|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/13/business/trade-bills-near-final-chapter.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=October 12, 2011}}</ref> Obama promoted two significantly larger, multilateral free trade agreements: the [[Trans-Pacific Partnership]] (TPP) with eleven Pacific Rim countries, including Japan, Mexico, and Canada, and the proposed [[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership]] (TTIP) with the [[European Union]].<ref name=kanter>{{cite news|last1=Kanter|first1=James|title=U.S. Official Lobbies for Trans-Atlantic Trade Pact|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/24/business/international/us-official-lobbies-for-trans-atlantic-trade-pact.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=March 23, 2014}}</ref> [[Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations|TPP negotiations]] began under President Bush, and Obama continued them as part of a long-term strategy that sought to refocus on rapidly growing economies in East Asia.<ref name=lafranchi>{{cite news|last1=LaFranchi|first1=Howard|title=Trans-Pacific Partnership: Obama pushes US lead role in Asia (+video)|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Foreign-Policy/2015/0418/Trans-Pacific-Partnership-Obama-pushes-US-lead-role-in-Asia-video|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=April 18, 2015}}</ref> The chief administration goals in the TPP, included: (1) establishing free market capitalism as the main normative platform for economic integration in the region; (2) guaranteeing standards for intellectual property rights, especially regarding copyright, software, and technology; (3) underscore American leadership in shaping the rules and norms of the emerging global order; (4) and blocking China from establishing a rival network.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/s41311-017-0051-y |title=The strategic value of the Trans-Pacific Partnership and the consequences of abandoning it for the US role in Asia |journal=International Politics |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=583–597 |year=2017 |last1=Dian |first1=Matteo |s2cid=148677557 }}</ref> After years of negotiations, the 12 countries reached a final agreement on the content of the TPP in October 2015,<ref name=nakamura>{{cite news|last1=Nakamura|first1=David|title=Deal reached on Pacific Rim trade pact in boost for Obama economic agenda|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/deal-reached-on-pacific-rim-trade-pact/2015/10/05/7c567f00-6b56-11e5-b31c-d80d62b53e28_story.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=October 5, 2015}}</ref> and the full text of the treaty was made public in November 2015.<ref name=tppmadepublic>{{cite news|title=Trans-Pacific Partnership: vast trade deal made public|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-34742074|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=BBC|date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> The Obama administration was criticized from the left for a lack of transparency in the negotiations, as well as the presence of corporate representatives who assisted in the drafting process.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2013/10/4/a_corporate_trojan_horse_obama_pushes |title='A Corporate Trojan Horse': Obama Pushes Secretive TPP Trade Pact, Would Rewrite Swath of U.S. Laws |work=[[Democracy Now!]] |date=October 4, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Carter |first=Zach |date=December 8, 2013 |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/08/tpp-trade-agreement_n_4409211.html |title=Obama Faces Backlash Over New Corporate Powers In Secret Trade Deal |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |access-date=December 11, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Zach |last=Carter |date=June 19, 2013 |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/elizabeth-warren-obama-trade_n_3467497.html |title=Elizabeth Warren Opposing Obama Trade Nominee Michael Froman |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |access-date=July 15, 2013 }}</ref> In July 2015, Congress passed a bill giving [[trade promotion authority]] to the president until 2021; trade promotion authority requires Congress to vote up or down on trade agreements signed by the president, with no possibility of amendments or filibusters.<ref name=weisman>{{cite news|last1=Weisman|first1=Jonathan|title=Trade Authority Bill Wins Final Approval in Senate|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/25/business/trade-pact-senate-vote-obama.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 24, 2015}}</ref> The TPP became a major campaign issue in the [[2016 United States presidential elections|2016 elections]], with both major party presidential nominees opposing its ratification.<ref name="tppclintontrump">{{cite news|last1=Everett|first1=Burgess|last2=Palmer|first2=Doug|title=How Trump and Clinton teamed up to sink trade|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/pacific-trade-trump-clinton-225504|access-date=July 22, 2016|publisher=Politico|date=July 14, 2016}}</ref> After Obama left office, President Trump pulled the United States out of the TPP negotiations, and the remaining TPP signatories later concluded a separate free trade agreement known as the [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Londoño |first1=Ernesto |last2=Rich |first2=Motoko |title=U.S. Allies Sign Sweeping Trade Deal in Challenge to Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/08/world/asia/us-trump-tpp-signed.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 8, 2018}}</ref> ===Guantanamo Bay detention camp=== In 2002, the Bush administration established the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] to hold alleged "[[enemy combatant]]s" in a manner that did not treat the detainees as conventional [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref name=kliptakgb/> Obama repeatedly stated his desire to close the detention camp, arguing that the camp's extrajudicial nature provided a recruitment tool for terrorist organizations.<ref name=kliptakgb>{{cite news|last1=Liptak|first1=Kevin|title=Obama still plans to shut Guantanamo. Can he?|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/11/19/politics/guantanamo-bay-prison-obama/|access-date=December 22, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=November 19, 2015}}</ref> On his first day in office, Obama instructed all military prosecutors to suspend proceedings so that the incoming administration could review the [[Guantanamo military commission|military commission]] process.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press|title=Obama Seeks Halt to Legal Proceedings at Guantanamo|date=January 21, 2009 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/20/AR2009012004743_pf.html |access-date=January 21, 2009 | work=The Washington Post | first=Peter | last=Finn}}</ref> On January 22, 2009, Obama signed an executive order restricting interrogators to methods listed and authorized by an [[Army Field Manual]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Obama, Barack |title=Executive Order 13491 – Ensuring Lawful Interrogations |publisher=[[The White House]] |date=January 22, 2009 |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/EnsuringLawfulInterrogations/ |access-date=January 26, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126061153/http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/EnsuringLawfulInterrogations/ |archive-date=January 26, 2009 }}</ref> ending the use of "[[enhanced interrogation techniques]]."<ref>{{cite news |publisher=CNN|title=Obama signs executive order to close Guantanamo Bay |date=January 22, 2009 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/22/guantanamo.order/index.html|access-date=January 22, 2009}}</ref> In March 2009, the administration announced that it would no longer refer to prisoners at Guantanamo Bay as [[enemy combatants]], but it also asserted that the president had the authority to detain terrorism suspects there without criminal charges.<ref>{{cite news |work=The New York Times |title=U.S. Won't Label Terror Suspects as ‘Combatants’ |date=March 13, 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/14/us/politics/14gitmo.html |access-date=March 15, 2009 | first=William | last=Glaberson}}</ref> The prisoner population of the detention camp fell from 242 in January 2009 to 91 in January 2016, in part due to the [[Periodic Review Board]]s that Obama established in 2011.<ref name="schwartzguan">{{cite news|last1=Schwartz|first1=Mattathias|title=Is Obama Serious About Closing Guantánamo?|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/is-obama-serious-about-closing-guantanamo|access-date=February 18, 2016|publisher=New Yorker|date=January 22, 2016}}</ref> Many members of Congress strongly opposed plans to transfer Guantanamo detainees to prisons in U.S. states, and the Obama administration was reluctant to send potentially dangerous prisoners to other countries, especially unstable countries such as [[Yemen]].<ref name=oneyeartogo/> Though Obama continued to advocate for the closure of the detention camp,<ref name=oneyeartogo>{{cite news|last1=Phillips|first1=Amber|title=The 7 big things on President Obama's to-do list, with one year to go|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/11/12/the-7-big-things-on-president-obamas-to-do-list-with-one-year-to-go/?tid=pm_politics_pop_b|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 12, 2015}}</ref> 41 inmates remained in Guantanamo when Obama left office.<ref name="mryanguantanamo">{{cite news|last1=Ryan|first1=Missy|last2=Tate|first2=Julie|title=With final detainee transfer, Obama's Guantanamo policy takes its last breath|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/with-final-detainee-transfer-obamas-guantanamo-policy-takes-its-last-breath/2016/12/28/dfdf8cb2-cd0f-11e6-a747-d03044780a02_story.html|access-date=January 11, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=December 28, 2016}}</ref><ref name="savageguantanamo1">{{cite news|last1=Savage|first1=Charlie|title=Obama Transfers 4 From Guantánamo, Leaving 41 There as Term Ends|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/19/us/politics/obama-transfers-4-from-guantanamo-leaving-41-there-as-term-ends.html|access-date=January 20, 2017|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 19, 2017}}</ref> ===Killing of Osama bin Laden=== {{Hauptartikel|Death of Osama bin Laden}} {{listen| |image=none |filename=President Obama on Death of Osama bin Laden no watermark.webm |title=President Obama on Osama bin Laden's Death |description=President Obama's address {{Cws |title=(Full Text) |link=Remarks by the President on Osama bin Laden |nobullet=yes}} |filename2=050111 Osama Bin Laden Death Statement audioonly.ogg |title2=President Obama on Osama bin Laden's Death |description2=audio only version }} [[File:Obama and Biden await updates on bin Laden.jpg|thumb|right|Obama, sitting next to Biden, with the U.S. national security team gathered in the [[White House Situation Room|Situation Room]] to monitor the progress of Operation Neptune Spear.]] {{wikisource|Remarks by the President on Osama bin Laden}} The Obama administration launched a successful operation that resulted in the death of [[Osama bin Laden]], the leader of [[al-Qaeda]], a global [[Sunni]] [[Islamist]] militant organization responsible for the [[September 11 attacks]] and several other [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nicholas |last=Schmidle |title=Getting Bin Laden |work=[[The New Yorker]] |date=August 1, 2011 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/08/08/getting-bin-laden |access-date=August 24, 2019 }}</ref> Starting with information received in July 2010, the CIA determined what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a [[Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad|large compound]] in [[Abbottabad]], Pakistan, a suburban area {{convert|35|mi|km}} from [[Islamabad]].<ref name="NYT-clues">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/03/world/asia/03intel.html?pagewanted=all|title=Clues Gradually Led to the Location of Osama bin Laden|last=Mazzetti|first=Mark|author2=Helene Cooper |author3=Peter Baker |date=May 3, 2011|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> CIA head [[Leon Panetta]] reported this intelligence to Obama in March 2011. Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks, Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound, and authorized a "surgical raid" to be conducted by United States [[Navy SEALs]]. The operation took place on May 1, 2011, resulting in the [[Death of Osama bin Laden|death of bin Laden]] and the seizure of papers and computer drives and disks from the compound.<ref name="WP-binLaden">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/osama-bin-laden-is-killed-by-us-forces-in-pakistan/2011/05/01/AFXMZyVF_story.html |title=Osama bin Laden buried at sea after being killed by U.S. forces in Pakistan |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=May 2, 2011 |first1=Philip |last1=Rucker |first2=Scott |last2=Wilson |first3=Anne E. |last3=Kornblut |access-date=August 24, 2019 }}</ref> Bin Laden's body was identified through DNA testing, and buried at sea several hours later.<ref name="NYT-ObamaAnnounce">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html|title=Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says|last=Baker|first=Peter|author2=Helene Cooper |author3=Mark Mazzetti |date=May 2, 2011|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Reactions to the death of Osama bin Laden|Reaction to the announcement]] was positive across party lines, including from predecessors [[George W. Bush]] and [[Bill Clinton]],<ref name="Bloom-binLaden">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-05-02/death-of-bin-laden-may-strengthen-obama-s-hand-in-domestic-foreign-policy.html|title=Death of Bin Laden May Strengthen Obama's Hand in Domestic, Foreign Policy|last=Dorning|first=Mike|date=May 2, 2011|publisher=Bloomberg News|access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> and from many countries around the world.<ref name="NPR-worldreaction">{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/05/02/135919728/world-reaction-to-osama-bin-ladens-death|title=World Reaction To Osama Bin Laden's Death|date=May 2, 2011|publisher=[[NPR]]|access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> ===Drone warfare=== {{Siehe auch|Drone attacks in Pakistan|Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)}} Obama expanded the [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] strike program begun by the Bush administration, and the Obama administration conducted drone strikes against targets in [[Yemen]], [[Somalia]], and, most prominently, [[Pakistan]].<ref name=scoll>{{cite news|last1=Coll|first1=Steve|title=THE UNBLINKING STARE|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/unblinking-stare|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New Yorker|date=November 24, 2014}}</ref> Though the drone strikes killed high-ranking terrorists, they were also criticized for resulting in [[Civilian casualties from US drone strikes|civilian casualties]].<ref name=sshane>{{cite news|last1=Shane|first1=Scott|title=Drone Strikes Reveal Uncomfortable Truth: U.S. Is Often Unsure About Who Will Die|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/24/world/asia/drone-strikes-reveal-uncomfortable-truth-us-is-often-unsure-about-who-will-die.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=April 23, 2015}}</ref> A 2013 Pew research poll showed that the strikes were broadly unpopular in Pakistan,<ref name=Pew_Research >{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/05/07/on-eve-of-elections-a-dismal-public-mood-in-pakistan/|title=On Eve of Elections, Dismal Mood in Pakistan|publisher=Pew Research|date=May 7, 2013|access-date=August 19, 2013}}</ref> and some former members of the Obama administration have criticized the strikes for causing a backlash against the United States.<ref name=sshane/> However, based on 147 interviews conducted in 2015, professor Aqil Shah argued that the strikes were popular in [[North Waziristan]], the area in which most of the strikes take place, and that little [[Blowback (intelligence)|blowback]] occurred.<ref name="ashah">{{cite news|last1=Shah|first1=Aqil|title=Drone blowback in Pakistan is a myth. Here's why.|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/05/17/drone-blow-back-in-pakistan-is-a-myth-heres-why/|access-date=July 22, 2016|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=May 17, 2016}}</ref> In 2009, the [[United nations|UN]] special investigator on [[extrajudicial killing|extrajudicial]], [[Extrajudicial punishment|summary, or arbitrary executions]] called the United States' reliance on drones "increasingly common" and "deeply troubling", and called on the U.S. to justify its use of targeted assassinations rather than attempting to capture al Qaeda or Taliban suspects.<ref name="cnn_un_probe">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/06/04/drone.attacks/ |title=U.N. envoy calls for probe into U.S. drone attacks |publisher=CNN |date=June 4, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Nebehay |first=Stephanie |title=U.N. Investigator Decries U.S. Use of Killer Drones |work=[[Reuters]] |date=June 19, 2012 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-un-drones-idUSBRE85I0FM20120619 }}</ref> In 2013, Obama appointed [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]] as the new CIA Director and announced a new policy that required CIA operatives to determine with a "near-certainty" that no civilians would be hurt in a drone strike.<ref name=scoll/> The number of drone strikes fell substantially after the announcement of the new policy,<ref name=scoll/><ref name=sshane/> As of 2015, US drone strikes had killed eight American citizens, one of whom, [[Anwar al-Aulaqi]], was specifically targeted.<ref name=sshane/> The targeted killing of a United States citizen raised Constitutional issues, as it is the first known instance of a sitting U.S. president ordering the [[extrajudicial killing]] of a U.S. citizen.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenation.com/blog/163724/assassinating-awlaki-obama-can-kill-anyone-he-wants|title=Assassinating Awlaki: Obama Can Kill Anyone He Wants To|author=Robert Dreyfuss|work=[[The Nation]]|date=September 30, 2011|author-link=Robert Dreyfuss}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Kevin Drum |url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2011/09/obama-assassinates-us-citizen |title=Obama Assassinates U.S. Citizen |work=Mother Jones |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> Obama had ordered the targeted killing of al-Aulaqi, a Muslim cleric with ties to [[al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula]], after al-Aulaqi allegedly shifted from encouraging attacks on the United States to directly participating in them.<ref name=shaneala>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/07/world/middleeast/07yemen.html | work=The New York Times | title=U.S. Approves Targeted Killing of American Cleric | first=Scott | last=Shane | date=April 6, 2010 | access-date=May 22, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/09/world/middleeast/secret-us-memo-made-legal-case-to-kill-a-citizen.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all|title=Secret U.S. Memo Made Legal Case to Kill a Citizen|work=The New York Times|author=Charlie Savage|date=October 8, 2011|author-link=Charlie Savage}}</ref> The Obama administration continually sought to keep classified the legal opinions justifying drone strikes, but it said that it conducted special legal reviews before targeting Americans in order to purportedly satisfy the [[Due Process Clause|due process]] requirements of the Constitution.<ref name=sshane/><ref name=NYTBeckerShane>{{Cite news | last1 = Becker | first1 = Jo | last2 = Shane | first2 = Scott | title =Secret 'Kill List' Proves a Test of Obama's Principles and Will | newspaper =The New York Times | pages =7–8 | date =May 29, 2012 | url =https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html | access-date = June 14, 2012}}</ref> ===Cuban thaw=== {{Hauptartikel|Cuban thaw}} {{Siehe auch|Cuba–United States relations}} The Obama presidency saw a major thaw in relations with Cuba, which the United States [[United States embargo against Cuba|embargoed]] following the [[Cuban Revolution]] and the 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]. Starting in the spring of 2013 secret meetings were conducted between the United States and [[Cuba]], with the meetings taking place in the neutral locations of Canada and [[Vatican City]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Warren|first1=Strobel|title=Secret talks in Canada, Vatican City led to Cuba breakthrough|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/17/us-cuba-usa-reconstruction-idUSKBN0JV2DM20141217|agency=Reuters|access-date=December 21, 2014|newspaper=Reuters|date=December 17, 2014}}</ref> The Vatican was consulted initially in 2013 as [[Pope Francis]] advised the U.S. and Cuba to [[prisoner swap|exchange prisoners]] as a gesture of goodwill.<ref name="The Washington Post">{{cite web|last1=Morello|first1=Carol|last2=DeYoung|first2=Karen|title=Secret U.S.-Cuba diplomacy ended in landmark deal on prisoners, future ties|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/secret-diplomacy-with-cuba-ended-in-breakthrough-deal/2014/12/17/c51b3ed8-8614-11e4-a702-fa31ff4ae98e_story.html|work=The Washington Post|access-date=December 21, 2014}}</ref> On December 10, 2013, Cuban President [[Raul Castro]], in a significant public moment, shook hands with and greeted Obama at [[Death and state funeral of Nelson Mandela|Nelson Mandela's memorial service]] in [[Johannesburg]].{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} In December 2014, Cuba released [[Alan Gross]] in exchange for the remaining members of the [[Cuban Five]].<ref name="The Washington Post"/> That same month, President Obama ordered the restoration of diplomatic ties with Cuba.<ref name=bakercuba>{{cite news|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|title=U.S. to Restore Full Relations With Cuba, Erasing a Last Trace of Cold War Hostility|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/americas/us-cuba-relations.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=December 17, 2014}}</ref> Obama stated that he was normalizing relationships because the economic embargo had been ineffective in persuading Cuba to develop a democratic society.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|title=U.S. to Restore Full Relations With Cuba, Erasing a Last Trace of Cold War Hostility|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/americas/us-cuba-relations.html|website=The New York Times|access-date=December 21, 2014}}</ref> In May 2015, Cuba was taken off the United States's list of [[State Sponsors of Terrorism]].<ref name=us-officially>{{cite news |url= https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/u-s-officially-removes-cuba-state-sponsor-terrorism-list-n366621 |title= U.S. Officially Removes Cuba From State Sponsors of Terrorism List |date= May 29, 2015 |first1= Katie |last1= Wall |work= [[NBC News]] |access-date= May 29, 2015}}</ref> In August 2015, following the restoration of official diplomatic relations, the United States and Cuba reopened their respective embassies.<ref name=oppman>{{cite news|last1=Oppman|first1=Patrick|title=Raising of Old Glory in Havana expected to help heal old wounds|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/08/14/world/u-s--embassy-reopens-cuba-havana/|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=August 14, 2015}}</ref> In March 2016, Obama visited Cuba, making him the first American president to set foot on the island since [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref name="jpace">{{cite news|last1=Pace|first1=Julie|title=With visit, Obama aims to push acrimony with Cuba into past|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/f720c854ada84ffe8269b32a6e6d994e/eyeing-new-future-us-cubans-await-visit-obama|access-date=March 20, 2016|publisher=AP|date=March 20, 2016}}</ref> In 2017, Obama ended the "[[wet feet, dry feet policy]]," which had given special rights to Cuban immigrants to the United States.<ref name="lastbigcubamove1">{{cite news|last1=Anderson|first1=Jon Lee|title=Obama's Last Big Cuba Move|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/obamas-last-big-cuba-move|access-date=January 14, 2017|publisher=New Yorker|date=January 13, 2017}}</ref> The restored ties between Cuba and the U.S. were seen as a boon to broader [[Latin America–United States relations]], as Latin American leaders unanimously approved of the move.<ref name=shorsley>{{cite news|last1=Horsley|first1=Scott|title=With A Handshake And More, Obama Shifts U.S.-Latin America Policy|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2015/04/13/399236626/with-a-handshake-and-more-obama-shifts-u-s-latin-america-policy|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=NPR|date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name=welsh>{{cite news|last1=Welsh|first1=Teresa|title=Renewed U.S.-Cuba Ties Will Benefit Larger Relations With Latin America|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/12/18/renewed-us-cuba-ties-will-benefit-relations-with-latin-america|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=US News and World Report|date=December 18, 2014}}</ref> Presidential candidate Donald Trump promised to reverse the Obama policies and return to a hard line on Cuba.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319402691 |journal=[[Social Research]] |volume=84#2 |year=2017 |first1=Philip |last1=Brenner |first2=Teresa García |last2=Castro |title=A Long Legacy of Distrust and the Future of Cuban-US Relations }}</ref> ===Iranian nuclear negotiations=== {{further|Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action}} Iran and the United States have had a poor [[Iran–United States relations|relationship]] since the [[Iranian Revolution]] and the [[Iran hostage crisis]], and tensions continued during Obama's presidency due to issues such as the [[Nuclear program of Iran|Iranian nuclear program]] and [[Iran and state-sponsored terrorism|Iran's alleged sponsorship of terrorism]]. On taking office, Obama focused on [[Negotiations leading to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action|negotiations]] with Iran over the status of its nuclear program, working with the other [[P5+1]] powers to adopt a multilateral agreement.<ref name=coheniran>{{cite news|last1=Cohen|first1=Roger|title=The Making of an Iran Policy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/02/magazine/02Iran-t.html|access-date=December 17, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 30, 2009}}</ref> Obama's stance differed dramatically from the more hawkish position of his predecessor, [[George W. Bush]],<ref name=fromero>{{cite news|last1=Romero|first1=Francis|title=George W. Bush and the Axis of Evil|url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2044176_2044193_2044190,00.html|access-date=November 18, 2015|work=Time|date=January 25, 2011}}</ref> as well as the stated positions of most of Obama's rivals in the 2008 presidential campaign.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/24/AR2007072401534_pf.html |title=Obama Debate Comments Set Off Firestorm |date= July 24, 2007 |access-date=April 2, 2015 |work= [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> In June 2013, [[Hasan Rouhani]] won [[2013 Iranian presidential election|election]] as the new [[President of Iran]], and Rouhani called for a continuation of talks on Iran's nuclear program.<ref name=irannatimeline>{{cite news|title=Iran nuclear agreement: A timeline|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/media/iran-nuclear-agreement-timeline/4/|access-date=December 4, 2015|agency=Associated Press|publisher=CBS|date=July 14, 2015}}</ref> In November 2013, Iran and the P5 announced an interim agreement,<ref name=irannatimeline/> and in April 2015, negotiators announced that a framework agreement had been reached.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/03/world/middleeast/iran-nuclear-talks.html |work= [[The New York Times]] |date= April 2, 2015 |access-date= April 2, 2015 |title=Iran Agrees to Framework of Nuclear Deal}}</ref> Congressional Republicans, who along with Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] had strongly opposed the negotiations,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/10/world/asia/white-house-faults-gop-senators-letter-to-irans-leaders.html |work= [[The New York Times]] |title= G.O.P. Senators' Letter to Iran About Nuclear Deal Angers White House |access-date= April 2, 2015 |date= March 9, 2015 }}</ref> attempted but failed to pass a Congressional resolution rejecting the six-nation accord.<ref name=steinhauer2>{{cite news|last1=Steinhauer|first1=Jennifer|title=Democrats Hand Victory to Obama on Iran Nuclear Deal|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/11/us/politics/iran-nuclear-deal-senate.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=September 10, 2015}}</ref> Under the agreement, Iran promised to limit its nuclear program and to provide access to [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] inspectors, while the U.S. and other countries agreed to reduce sanctions on Iran.<ref name=wbroad>{{cite news|last1=Broad|first1=William|title=The Iran Nuclear Deal – A Simple Guide|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/03/31/world/middleeast/simple-guide-nuclear-talks-iran-us.html|access-date=December 4, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=July 14, 2015}}</ref> The partisan fight over the Iran nuclear deal exemplified a broader ideological disagreement regarding American foreign policy in the Middle East and how to handle adversarial regimes, as many opponents of the deal considered Iran to be an implacably hostile adversary who would inevitably break any agreement.<ref name=mfisher>{{cite news|last1=Fisher|first1=Max|title=Why we fight about Iran|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/1/20/10794186/iran-debate|access-date=January 20, 2016|publisher=Vox|date=January 20, 2016}}</ref> ===Arab Spring and its aftermath=== {{Siehe auch|Arab Spring}} [[File:Arab Spring and Regional Conflict Map.svg|300px|thumb|right|Most [[Arab states]] experienced turmoil during the [[Arab Spring]]. {{legend2|#800000|Civil war}} {{legend2|#800080|Government overthrown multiple times}} {{legend2|#000018|Government overthrown}} {{legend2|#008080|Protests and governmental changes}} {{legend2|#d43f00|Major protests}} {{legend2|#deaa87|Minor protests}}]] After a sudden revolution in Tunisia in 2011,<ref>{{cite web|first=Yasmine|last=Ryan |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/01/2011126121815985483.html |title=How Tunisia's revolution began|publisher=Al Jazeera |date=January 26, 2011 |access-date=June 13, 2012}}</ref> protests occurred in almost every [[Arab]] state. The wave of demonstrations became known as the [[Arab Spring]], and the handling of the Arab Spring played a major role in Obama's foreign policy.<ref name=ianblack>{{cite news|last1=Black|first1=Ian|title=Barack Obama, the Arab spring and a series of unforeseen events|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/oct/21/barack-obama-arab-spring-cairo-speech|access-date=December 14, 2015|work=The Guardian|date=October 21, 2012}}</ref> After three weeks of [[Egyptian Revolution of 2011|unrest]], Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]] resigned at the urging of President Obama.<ref name=hcooper>{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|title=In Arab Spring, Obama Finds a Sharp Test|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/25/us/politics/arab-spring-proves-a-harsh-test-for-obamas-diplomatic-skill.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=September 24, 2012}}</ref> General [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] eventually took power from Egyptian President [[Mohammed Morsi]] in a [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|2013 coup d'état]], prompting the US to cut off arms shipments to its long-time ally.<ref name=kliptak/> However, Obama resumed the shipments in 2015.<ref name=kliptak>{{cite news|last1=Liptak|first1=Kevin|title=Obama lifts freeze, ships arms to Egypt|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/31/politics/obama-egypt-aid-f-16s-tanks/|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=March 31, 2015}}</ref> Yemen experienced a [[Yemeni Revolution|revolution]] and then [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|civil war]], leading to a [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen|Saudi military campaign]] that received logistical and intelligence assistance from the United States.<ref name=hnaylor>{{cite news|last1=Naylor|first1=Hugh|title=Yemen is turning into Saudi Arabia's Vietnam|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-arabia-cant-find-its-way-out-of-yemens-messy-war/2015/11/12/4d70ce26-84e1-11e5-8bd2-680fff868306_story.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 13, 2015}}</ref> The Obama administration announced its intention to review U.S. military assistance to [[Saudi Arabia]] after Saudi warplanes [[2016 Sana'a funeral airstrike|targeted a funeral]] in Yemen's capital Sanaa, killing more than 140 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-saudi-arabia-yemen-war-support-military-houthis-bombing-campaign-crisis-a7472546.html |title=America 'agrees to stop selling some arms' to Saudi Arabia |work=[[The Independent]] |date=December 13, 2016 }}</ref> The UN accused the Saudi-led coalition of "complete disregard for human life".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/yemen-civil-war-saudi-arabia-air-strikes-civilian-deaths-one-day-killed-un-united-nations-a8131841.html|title=Saudi-led air strikes in Yemen killed 68 civilians in one day, UN says|work=The Independent|access-date=June 5, 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/11/bombing-businesses/saudi-coalition-airstrikes-yemens-civilian-economic-structures|title=Bombing Businesses - Saudi Coalition Airstrikes on Yemen's Civilian Economic Structures|date=July 11, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/death-toll-from-saudi-airstrike-on-yemeni-wedding-rises-to-88-report/|title=Death toll from Saudi airstrike on Yemeni wedding rises to 88: report|date=April 23, 2018|work=AMN - Al-Masdar News {{!}} المصدر نيوز|access-date=June 5, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> ====Libya==== Libya was strongly affected by the Arab Spring. Anti-government protests broke out in [[Benghazi]], Libya, in February 2011,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/02/16/137834.html |title=Clash breaks out as Libya braces for 'day of anger' |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=August 7, 2013|date=February 16, 2011 }}</ref> and the [[Muammar Gaddafi|Gaddafi]] government responded with military force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201122214042786138.html |title=Nations condemn Libyan crackdown |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> The Obama administration initially resisted calls to take strong action<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/02/22/administration-urged-squeez-libya-concrete-action/|title=Obama administration Urged to Squeeze Libya, Take Concrete Action | publisher=Fox News Channel | date=February 22, 2011}}</ref> but relented after the Arab League requested Western intervention in Libya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/17/libya-no-fly-zone-united-nations|title=Britain, France and US prepare for air strikes against Gaddafi | location=London |work=The Guardian|first1=Nicholas|last1=Watt|first2=Ewen|last2=MacAskill|first3=Ed|last3=Pilkington|first4=Ian|last4=Black|first5=Luke|last5=Harding|date=March 17, 2011}}</ref> In March 2011, international reaction to Gaddafi's military crackdown culminated in a [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|United Nations resolution]] to enforce a [[no fly zone]] in Libya. Obama authorized U.S. forces to participate in [[2011 military intervention in Libya|international air attacks]] on Libyan air defenses using [[Tomahawk cruise missiles]] to establish the protective zone.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12813757 |title=Gaddafi 'not targeted' by allied strikes |work=[[BBC News]] |date=March 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/28/libya.us.military.capabilities/index.html|title=US providing 'unique capabilities' to the Libya mission|last=Rizzo|first=Jennifer|publisher=CNN|date=June 10, 2011}}</ref> The intervention was led by [[NATO]], but [[Sweden]] and three [[Arab]] nations also participated in the mission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/28/remarks-president-address-nation-libya|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on Libya|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|date=March 28, 2011}}</ref> With coalition support, the rebels took Tripoli the following August.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/08/201182282315305270.html|title=Libyan diaspora celebrates fall of Tripoli|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> The Libyan campaign culminated in the toppling of the Gaddafi regime, but Libya experienced [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|turmoil]] in the aftermath of the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|civil war]].<ref name=bbclibya>{{cite news|title=Libya crisis: Obama appeals to Gulf states|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32360586|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=BBC|date=April 18, 2015}}</ref> Obama's intervention in Libya [[US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya|provoked criticism]] from members of Congress and ignited a debate over the applicability of the [[War Powers Resolution]].<ref name=csavage>{{cite news|last1=Savage|first1=Charlie|title=White House Defends Continuing U.S. Role in Libya Operation|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/16/us/politics/16powers.html|access-date=November 19, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 15, 2011}}</ref> In September 2012, Islamic militants [[2012 Benghazi attack|attacked]] the American consulate in Benghazi, killing [[United States Ambassador to Libya|Ambassador]] [[J. Christopher Stevens]] and three other Americans.<ref name=reuters1>{{cite news|title=In Libya, deadly fury took U.S. envoys by surprise|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/13/libya-ambassador-assault-idUSL5E8KCLHR20120913|newspaper=Reuters|author=Hadeel Al Shalchi|access-date=September 13, 2012|date=September 13, 2012}}</ref> Republicans strongly criticized the Obama administration's handling of the Benghazi attack, and established a [[United States House Select Committee on Benghazi|select committee]] in the House to investigate the attack.<ref name=wheaton>{{cite news|last1=Wheaton|first1=Sarah|title=Obama picks new top diplomat to Libya|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/07/president-obama-libya-diplomat-peter-bodde-119816|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=July 7, 2015}}</ref> After his presidency, Obama acknowledged his "worst mistake" of his presidency was being unable to anticipate the aftermath of ousting Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36013703|title=Obama admits Libya was 'worst mistake'|date=April 11, 2016|work=BBC|access-date=April 28, 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> ====Syrian civil war==== {{Siehe auch|Syrian Civil War|American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War}} Syria was one of the states most heavily affected by the Arab Spring, and by the second half of March 2011, major anti-government protests were being held in Syria.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline|title=Arab spring: an interactive timeline of Middle East protests | location=London |work=The Guardian|first1=Garry|last1=Blight|first2=Sheila|last2=Pulham|first3=Paul|last3=Torpey|date=March 22, 2011}}</ref> Though Syria had long been an adversary of the United States, Obama argued that unilateral military action to topple the [[Bashar al-Assad]] regime would be a mistake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-03-07/obama-warns-against-military-action-in-syria/3872982 |title=Obama seeks to calm 'beat of war' over Syria, Iran |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=March 7, 2012 |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> As the protests continued, Syria fell into a protracted [[Syrian Civil War|civil war]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2012/06/syrias-civil-war/100319/ |title=Syria's Civil War |work=The Atlantic |date=June 14, 2012 |access-date=August 7, 2013}}</ref> and the United States supported the [[Syrian opposition]] against the Assad regime.<ref name=jpace2>{{cite news|last1=Pace|first1=Julie|title=Analysis: Obama crosses own red line with Syrian deployment|url=https://news.yahoo.com/analysis-syria-deployment-obama-crosses-own-red-line-071956227--politics.html|access-date=November 15, 2015|agency=Associated Press|publisher=Yahoo!|date=October 31, 2015}}</ref> US criticism of Assad intensified after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]], eventually resulting in a Russian-backed deal that saw the Syrian government relinquish its chemical weapons.<ref name=zbeauchamp>{{cite news|last1=Beauchamp|first1=Zack|title=Syria's civil war: a brief history|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/9/14/9319293/syrian-refugees-civil-war|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=Vox|date=October 2, 2015}}</ref> In the chaos of the Syrian Civil War, an Islamist group known as [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL) took control of large portions of Syria and Iraq.<ref name=kshaeen>{{cite news|last1=Shaheen|first1=Kareem|title=Isis 'controls 50% of Syria' after seizing historic city of Palmyra|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/21/isis-palmyra-syria-islamic-state|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=The Guardian|date=May 21, 2015}}</ref> ISIL, which had originated as [[al-Qaeda in Iraq]] under the leadership of [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]],<ref name="Isis1">{{cite news|last1=Fisher|first1=Ian|title=In Rise of ISIS, No Single Missed Key but Many Strands of Blame|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/19/world/middleeast/in-rise-of-isis-no-single-missed-key-but-many-strands-of-blame.html|access-date=July 23, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=November 18, 2015}}</ref> eventually challenged [[al-Qaeda]] as the most prominent global [[terrorist]] group during Obama's second term.<ref name=elabottisil>{{cite news|last1=Labott|first1=Elise|title=State Department report: ISIS breaking new ground as new leader in terror groups|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/19/politics/isis-report-state-department-terror/|access-date=January 21, 2016|publisher=CNN|date=June 20, 2015}}</ref> Starting in 2014, the Obama administration launched [[American-led intervention in Syria|air strikes]] against ISIL and trained anti-ISIL soldiers, while continuing to oppose Assad's regime.<ref name=jpace2/><ref name=zbeauchamp/> The Obama administration also cooperated with [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]] in opposing the ISIL, straining relations with [[Turkey]], which accused the Syrian Kurds of working with the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] terrorist groups [[Kurds in Turkey|inside Turkey]].<ref name="cunninghamkurds1">{{cite news|last1=Cunningham|first1=Erin|title=Syria's war creates myriad problems for Turkey|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-war-becomes-a-bigger-problem-for-turkey/2017/01/17/ab4ba450-c7be-11e6-acda-59924caa2450_story.html?hpid=hp_hp-cards_hp-card-world%3Ahomepage%2Fcard|access-date=January 19, 2017|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=January 18, 2017}}</ref> Russia launched its own [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|military intervention]] to aid Assad's regime, creating a complicated multi-party [[proxy war]], though the United States and Russia sometimes cooperated to fight ISIL.<ref name="syriaproxywar">{{cite news|last1=Mazzetti|first1=Mark|last2=Barnard|first2=Anne|last3=Schmitt|first3=Eric|title=Military Success in Syria Gives Putin Upper Hand in U.S. Proxy War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/world/middleeast/military-syria-putin-us-proxy-war.html|access-date=August 7, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 6, 2016}}</ref> In November 2015, Obama announced a plan to resettle at least 10,000 [[Refugees of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian refugees]] in the United States.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> Obama's "light-footprint" approach to the Syrian conflict was criticized by many as the Syrian Civil War became a major humanitarian catastrophe, but supporters of Obama argued that he deserved credit for keeping the United States out of another costly ground war in the Middle East.<ref name="mspetalnick1">{{cite news|last1=Spetalnick|first1=Matt|last2=Landay|first2=Jonathan|title=Syria's civil war to mar Obama legacy|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-obama-analysis-idUSKBN14228S|access-date=January 11, 2017|publisher=Reuters|date=December 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="usher1">{{cite news|last1=Plett Usher|first1=Barbara|title=Obama's Syria legacy: Measured diplomacy, strategic explosion|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38297343|access-date=January 13, 2017|publisher=BBC|date=January 13, 2017}}</ref><ref name="parsonshennigan1"/> ===Foreign and domestic surveillance=== {{Siehe auch|Barack Obama on mass surveillance}} The Obama administration inherited several government surveillance programs from the Bush administration, and Obama attempted to strike a balance between protecting civil liberties and tracking terrorist threats, but Obama's continuation of many programs disappointed many civil libertarians.<ref name=mshear2/> ''The New York Times'' reported in 2009 that the NSA had been intercepting communications of American citizens including a Congressman, although the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] believed that the NSA had corrected its errors.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Lichtblau, Eric |author2=Risen, James |name-list-style=amp |date=April 15, 2009|title=N.S.A.'s Intercepts Exceed Limits Set by Congress|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/16/us/16nsa.html|work=The New York Times |access-date=April 15, 2009}}</ref> In 2011, Obama signed a four-year extension of some provisions of the [[Patriot Act]].<ref name=tcohen>{{cite news|last1=Cohen|first1=Tom|title=Obama approves extension of expiring Patriot Act provisions|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/POLITICS/05/27/congress.patriot.act/|access-date=December 16, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=May 27, 2011}}</ref> In June 2013 the existence of [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]], a [[clandestine operation|clandestine]] [[mass surveillance|mass]] [[computer surveillance|electronic surveillance]] [[data mining]] program operated by the United States [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) since 2007, was [[news leak|leaked]] by NSA contractor [[Edward Snowden]], who warned that the extent of mass data collection was far greater than the public knew.<ref name="ibtimes 17 june">{{cite news |last=Mezzofiore |first=Gianluca |date=June 17, 2013 |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/479709/20130617/nsa-whistleblower-edward-snowden.htm |title=NSA Whistleblower Edward Snowden: Washington Snoopers Are Criminals |work=[[International Business Times]] |access-date=June 30, 2013 }}</ref> In the face of international outrage, U.S. government officials defended the PRISM surveillance program by asserting it could not be used on domestic targets without a [[search warrant|warrant]], that it helped to prevent acts of terrorism, and that it received independent oversight from the federal government's [[U.S. Executive Branch#Executive branch|executive]], [[U.S. Executive Branch#Judicial branch|judicial]] and [[U.S. Executive Branch#Legislative branch|legislative]] branches.<ref>{{Cite news | first = Shira | last = Ovide | date = June 8, 2013 | url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324299104578533802289432458 | title = U.S. Official Releases Details of Prism Program | work = [[The Wall Street Journal]] | access-date = June 15, 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, Obama stated that the NSA's data gathering practices constitute "a circumscribed, narrow system directed at us being able to protect our people."<ref name="cbsberlin">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-250_162-57590025/obama-defends-narrow-surveillance-programs/|title=Obama Defends 'Narrow' Surveillance Programs|work=[[CBS News]] |first=Lucy|last=Madison|date=June 19, 2013 | access-date = June 30, 2013}}</ref> In 2015, Obama signed the [[USA Freedom Act]], which extended several provisions of the Patriot Act but ended the collection of bulk telephone records by the NSA.<ref name=mshear2>{{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael|title=In Pushing for Revised Surveillance Program, Obama Strikes His Own Balance|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/04/us/winning-surveillance-limits-obama-makes-program-own.html|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=June 3, 2015}}</ref><ref name=fthorp>{{cite news|last1=Thorp|first1=Frank|title=Barack Obama Signs 'USA Freedom Act' to Reform NSA Surveillance|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/nsa-snooping/senate-vote-measure-reform-nsa-surveillance-n368341|access-date=December 16, 2015|publisher=NBC|date=June 2, 2015}}</ref> ==Ethics== ===Lobbying reform=== {{Siehe auch|Lobbying in the United States}} Early in [[Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign|his presidential campaign]], Obama stated that lobbyists "won't find a job in my White House", but softened his stance after taking office.<ref name="lobbyists1">{{cite news|last1=Vogel|first1=Kenneth|last2=Allen|first2=Mike|title=Obama finds room for lobbyists|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2009/01/obama-finds-room-for-lobbyists-018128|access-date=August 19, 2016|publisher=Politico|date=January 28, 2009}}</ref> On January 21, 2009, Obama issued an executive order for all future appointees to his administration, which ordered that no appointee who was a registered lobbyist within the two years before his appointment could participate on matters in which he lobbied for a period of two years after the date of appointment.<ref name=EthicsOrder/> Three formal waivers were initially issued in early 2009, out of 800 executive appointments:<ref name=ABCWaivers>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2009/03/obama-white-hou.html |title=Obama White House Discloses Two More Lobbyist Waivers Granted |work=ABC News |date=March 10, 2009 }}</ref> The [[Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington]] criticized the administration, claiming that Obama retreated from his own ethics rules barring lobbyists from working on the issues about which they lobbied during the previous two years by issuing waivers.<ref name=USATodayLobbyists>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-01-27-lobbyist_N.htm |title=Geithner names ex-lobbyist as Treasury chief of staff |work=USA Today |date=January 27, 2009 |access-date=February 14, 2009 |first=Fredreka |last=Schouten}}</ref> A 2015 Politico investigation found that, while Obama had instituted incremental reforms and the number of lobbyists fell during Obama's presidency, Obama had failed to close the "revolving door" of officials moving between government and business.<ref name="gersteinlobbying">{{cite news|last1=Gerstein|first1=Josh|title=How Obama failed to shut Washington's revolving door|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/12/barack-obama-revolving-door-lobbying-217042|access-date=August 2, 2016|publisher=Politico|date=December 31, 2015}}</ref> However, the Obama administration avoided "conflict of interest" scandals that previous administrations had experienced, in part due to the administration's lobbyist rules.<ref name=eilperinlobbyists>{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|title=Obama promised to curb the influence of lobbyists. Has he succeeded?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-promised-to-curb-the-influence-of-lobbyists-has-he-succeeded/2015/03/22/e9ec766e-ab03-11e4-abe8-e1ef60ca26de_story.html|access-date=December 16, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=March 22, 2015}}</ref> ===Transparency=== [[File:20090124 WeeklyAddress.ogv|thumb|Obama presents his first [[weekly address]] as President of the United States, discussing the [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]].]] Obama promised that he would run the "most transparent" administration in US history, with mixed results.<ref name=jrarnold>{{cite news|last1=Arnold|first1=Jason Ross|title=Has Obama delivered the 'most transparent' administration in history?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/03/16/has-obama-delivered-the-most-transparent-administration-in-history/|access-date=December 18, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=March 16, 2015}}</ref> On taking office, the Obama administration said that all executive orders, non-emergency legislation, and proclamations would be posted to the official [[White House]] website, [[whitehouse.gov]], allowing the public to review and comment for five days before the President signs the legislation,<ref>{{cite web |author=Macon Phillips |title=Change has come to WhiteHouse.gov |date=January 20, 2009 |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/change_has_come_to_whitehouse-gov/ |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=January 26, 2009 }}</ref> but this pledge was twice broken during Obama's first month in office.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0209/18441.html |title=Obama breaks five-day pledge |work=[[Politico]] |date=February 5, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/promise/234/allow-five-days-of-public-comment-before-signing-b/ |title=Barack Obama Campaign Promise No. 234: Allow five days of public comment before signing bills |work=[[PolitiFact.com|Politifact]] |date=February 4, 2009 }}</ref> On January 21, 2009, by executive order, Obama revoked [[Executive Order 13233]], which had limited access to the records of former United States presidents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrderPresidentialRecords/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122234307/http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ExecutiveOrderPresidentialRecords/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 22, 2009|title=Executive Order 13489 – Presidential Records|publisher=The White House|access-date=January 22, 2009}}</ref> Obama issued instructions to all agencies and departments in his administration to "adopt a presumption in favor" of [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] requests.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/federal-eye/2009/01/_in_a_move_that.html |title=New Obama Orders on Transparency, FOIA Requests |work=The Washington Post |access-date=January 22, 2009}}</ref> These actions helped the rate of classification fall to record lows during the Obama administration.<ref name=jrarnold/> In April 2009, the [[United States Department of Justice]] released four legal memos from the Bush administration describing in detail [[Enhanced interrogation techniques|controversial interrogation methods]] the CIA had used on prisoners suspected of terrorism.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Torturers' Manifesto|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/opinion/19sun1.html|date=April 18, 2009|work=The New York Times |access-date=April 19, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Smith, R. Jeffrey|title=Justice Dept. Memos' Careful Legalese Obscured Harsh Reality|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/18/AR2009041802166.html|date=April 19, 2009|work=The Washington Post |access-date=April 19, 2009}}</ref> The Obama administration also introduced the Open Government Directive, which encouraged government agencies to publish data and collaborate with the public, and the Open Government Partnership, which advocated open government norms.<ref name=jrarnold/> However, Obama continued to make use of secret memos and the [[state secrets privilege]], and he continued to prosecute whistleblowers.<ref name=jrarnold/> The Obama administration has been characterized as much more aggressive than the Bush and other previous administrations in their response to [[whistleblowing]] and leaks to the press,<ref name=shane2/> prompting critics to describe the Obama administration's crackdown as a "war on whistleblowers."<ref name="WP">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-politics/wp/2013/07/02/greenwald-obama-engaged-in-unprecedented-war-on-whistleblowers/ |title=Greenwald: Obama engaged in 'unprecedented war on whistleblowers' |work=The Washington Post }}</ref><ref name="nation">"{{cite news |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/war-whistleblowers-sin-being-correct/ |date=June 20, 2013 |first=Rick |last=Perlstein |title=The War on Whistleblowers: On the Sin of Being Correct |work=[[The Nation]] }}</ref> Several people were charged under the previously rarely used leak-related provisions of the [[Espionage Act of 1917]], including [[Thomas Andrews Drake]], a former [[National Security Agency]] employee,<ref name=naka2/><ref name=harri1/> [[Stephen Jin-Woo Kim]], a [[State Department]] contractor,<ref name=shane3/> and [[Jeffrey Alexander Sterling|Jeffrey Sterling]]. Others prosecuted for leaking information include [[Shamai Leibowitz]], a contract linguist for the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]],<ref name=WaPo1>{{cite news|author=Maria Glod|title=Former FBI employee sentenced for leaking classified papers|work=The Washington Post|date=May 25, 2010|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/24/AR2010052403795.html|access-date=June 5, 2013}}</ref> [[John Kiriakou]], a former CIA analyst,<ref name=Shane-Kiriakou>{{cite news|author=Scott Shane|title=Ex-Officer Is First From C.I.A. to Face Prison for a Leak|work=The New York Times|date=January 5, 2013|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/06/us/former-cia-officer-is-the-first-to-face-prison-for-a-classified-leak.html?pagewanted=1&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0|access-date=January 6, 2013}}</ref> and [[Chelsea Manning]], an intelligence analyst for the [[United States Army|US Army]] whose [[United States v. Manning|trial]] received wide coverage.<ref>{{cite news|author=Paul Adams|title=Bradley Manning pleads guilty to some Wikileaks charges|work=BBC News|date=February 28, 2013|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21610811|access-date=July 16, 2013}}</ref> Most notably, [[Edward Snowden]], a technical contractor for the [[National Security Agency|NSA]], was charged with theft and the unauthorized [[Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|disclosure of classified information]] to columnist [[Glenn Greenwald]].<ref>{{cite news|first1=Peter|last1=Finn|first2=Sari|last2=Horwitz|title=U.S. charges Snowden with espionage|work=The Washington Post|date=June 21, 2013|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-charges-snowden-with-espionage/2013/06/21/507497d8-dab1-11e2-a016-92547bf094cc_story.html|access-date=June 21, 2013}}</ref> Snowden's disclosures provoked [[Reactions to global surveillance disclosures|wide array of reactions]]; many called for Snowden to be pardoned, while others called him a traitor.<ref name=afredrick>{{cite news|last1=Fredrickson|first1=Anna|title=Is Snowden ready to come home?|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2015/1006/Is-Snowden-ready-to-come-home|access-date=November 21, 2015|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=October 6, 2015}}</ref><ref name="liptaksnowden">{{cite news|last1=Liptak|first1=Kevin|title=White House: No Snowden clemency request|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/17/politics/snowden-no-clemency-request/|access-date=January 17, 2017|publisher=CNN|date=January 17, 2017}}</ref> ==Elections during the Obama presidency== {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; |+ [[Party divisions of United States Congresses|Democratic seats in Congress]]{{ref|Congress}} |- ! Congress ! Senate ! House |- ! {{party shading/Democratic}} | [[111th United States Congress|111th]]{{Ref|timeline}} | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''59'''{{ref|Congress2}} | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''257''' |- ! [[112th United States Congress|112th]] | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''53''' | {{party shading/Republican}}| 193 |- ! [[113th United States Congress|113th]] | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''55''' | {{party shading/Republican}}| 201 |- ! {{party shading/Republican}}| [[114th United States Congress|114th]] | {{party shading/Republican}}| 46 | {{party shading/Republican}}| 188 |- ! {{party shading/Republican}} | [[115th United States Congress|115th]]{{Ref|timeline}} | {{party shading/Republican}}| 48 | {{party shading/Republican}}| 194 |} ===2010 mid-term elections=== {{Hauptartikel|2010 United States elections}} Attacking Obama relentlessly, emphasizing the stalled economy, and enjoying the anger of the [[Tea Party Movement]], Republicans scored a landslide in the [[2010 United States elections|2010 midterm elections]], [[2010 United States House of Representatives elections|winning control of the House]] and gaining seats in the Senate. After the election, John Boehner replaced Nancy Pelosi as Speaker of the House, and Pelosi became the new House Minority Leader. Boehner pledged to repeal Obamacare and cut federal spending.<ref name=pkane/> Obama called the elections "humbling" and a "shellacking", arguing that the defeat came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131048554|title=Obama: Midterm Election Was A ‘Shellacking’ |first1=Michele|last1=Norris|first2=Robert|last2=Siegel|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=November 3, 2010|access-date=April 3, 2011 }}</ref> The newly empowered House Republicans quickly confronted Obama on issues such as Obamacare and the debt ceiling.<ref name=wallsten/> The Republican victory in the election also gave Republicans the upper hand in the [[redistricting]] that occurred after the [[2010 United States census]].<ref name=giroux>{{cite news|last1=Giroux|first1=Greg|title=Republicans Win Congress as Democrats Get Most Votes|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-03-19/republicans-win-congress-as-democrats-get-most-votes|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=March 18, 2013}}</ref> ===2012 re-election campaign=== {{Hauptartikel|2012 United States presidential election}} {{further|2012 United States elections|Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|2012 Democratic Party presidential primaries|2012 Democratic National Convention}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2012.svg|thumb|right|Obama defeated Republican [[Mitt Romney]] in the 2012 presidential election.]] On April 4, 2011, Obama announced that he would seek [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|re-election in 2012]]. He did not face any significant rivals for the Democratic nomination. His Republican opponent was [[Mitt Romney]] a former governor of Massachusetts. Romney called for lower taxes, spending cuts, an increase in defense spending, and a repeal of [[Obamacare]] (even though it was based on a [[Massachusetts health care reform|Massachusetts healthcare plan]] developed under Romney).<ref name=romneyplatform>{{cite news|title=US Election 2012 guide: Mitt Romney and Barack Obama's policy positions|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/us-election/9480647/US-Election-2012-guide-Mitt-Romney-and-Barack-Obamas-policy-positions.html|access-date=November 14, 2015|work=The Telegraph|date=August 17, 2012}}</ref> Obama's campaign was based in Chicago and run by many former members of the White House staff and members of the successful [[Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign|2008 campaign]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/04/barack_obamas_re-election_campaign | work=[[The Economist]] | title=Lack of change you can believe in |date=April 4, 2011|author= E.M.|access-date=November 7, 2012}}</ref> Obama won re-election with 332 (out of a total of 538) electoral votes and 51.1% of the popular vote, making him the first person since [[Dwight Eisenhower]] to twice win 51 percent of the vote.<ref name=giroux2>{{cite news|last1=Giroux|first1=Greg|title=Final Tally Shows Obama First Since '56 to Win 51% Twice|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-01-03/final-tally-shows-obama-first-since-56-to-win-51-twice|access-date=November 14, 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=January 4, 2013}}</ref> According to exit polls, Obama won a majority of the vote from women, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, people under 45, people making less than $50,000 per year, people inhabiting large or mid-sized cities, liberals, moderates, the unmarried, gays, and people with no college education, some college education, or graduate degrees.<ref name=2012exitpolls>{{cite news|title=2012 President Exit Polls|url=http://elections.nytimes.com/2012/results/president/exit-polls|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=November 18, 2015}}</ref> In addition to the presidential election victory, the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of Congress, but Republicans retained control of the House. ===2014 mid-term elections=== {{Hauptartikel|2014 United States elections}} {| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; |+ Congressional party leaders |- ! ! colspan=2 | Senate leaders ! colspan=2 | House leaders |- ! Year ! [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Majority]] ! [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Minority]] ! [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker]] ! [[Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives|Minority]] |- ! {{party shading/Democratic}}| 2009–2010 | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''[[Harry Reid|Reid]]''' | {{party shading/Republican}}| [[Mitch McConnell|McConnell]] | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''[[Nancy Pelosi|Pelosi]]''' | {{party shading/Republican}}| [[John Boehner|Boehner]] |- ! 2011–2014 | {{party shading/Democratic}}| '''[[Harry Reid|Reid]]''' | {{party shading/Republican}}| [[Mitch McConnell|McConnell]] | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[John Boehner|Boehner]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Nancy Pelosi|Pelosi]] |- ! {{party shading/Republican}}| 2015 | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[Mitch McConnell|McConnell]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Harry Reid|Reid]] | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[John Boehner|Boehner]]'''{{ref|Ryan2015}} | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Nancy Pelosi|Pelosi]] |- ! {{party shading/Republican}}| 2015–2016 | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[Mitch McConnell|McConnell]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Harry Reid|Reid]] | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[Paul Ryan|Ryan]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Nancy Pelosi|Pelosi]] |- ! {{party shading/Republican}}| 2017{{ref|timeline}} | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[Mitch McConnell|McConnell]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Chuck Schumer|Schumer]] | {{party shading/Republican}}| '''[[Paul Ryan|Ryan]]''' | {{party shading/Democratic}}| [[Nancy Pelosi|Pelosi]] |} Obama's second mid-term election turned into another [[wave election]], as Republicans won control of the Senate and picked up several governorships.<ref name=montanaro>{{cite news|last1=Montanaro|first1=Domenico|title=Breaking down the 2014 Republican wave|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/breaking-2014-republican-wave/|access-date=November 13, 2015|publisher=PBS|date=November 5, 2014}}</ref> Mitch McConnell replaced Harry Reid as Senate Majority Leader, while Reid became the Senate Minority Leader. Republican control of the Senate gave the party the power to block Obama's executive and judicial nominees.<ref name=everett1>{{cite news|last1=Everett|first1=Burgess|title=The Senate's 'nuclear' fallout|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2015/04/republican-senate-obama-nominees-117128|access-date=November 15, 2015|publisher=Politico|date=April 20, 2015}}</ref> The Republican waves in 2010 and 2014 defeated many young Democratic candidates, weakening the farm team of several state Democratic parties.<ref name=stolberg>{{cite news|last1=Gay Stolberg|first1=Sheryl|title=In Obama Era, G.O.P. Bolsters Grip in the States|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/13/us/politics/obama-legacy-in-state-offices-a-shrinking-democratic-share.html|access-date=November 13, 2015|work=The New York Times|date=November 12, 2015}}</ref> ===2016 elections and transition period=== {{Hauptartikel|2016 United States elections}} {{further|2016 United States presidential election}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2016.svg|thumb|right|Republican [[Donald Trump]] defeated Democrat [[Hillary Clinton]] in the 2016 presidential election.]] The 2016 elections took place on November 8. Obama was term-limited in 2016 due to the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment]], though Obama's approval ratings may have impacted his party's ability to win the race.<ref name=kondik>{{cite news|last1=Kondik|first1=Kyle|title=Clinton's Real Opponent: Barack Obama|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/04/obama-approval-ratings-swing-states-117019|access-date=November 15, 2015|work=Politico|date=April 17, 2015}}</ref> In June 2016, with the [[Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2016|Democratic primaries]] nearly complete, Obama endorsed former Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] as his successor.<ref name="whyobamawaited">{{cite news|last1=Thrush|first1=Glenn|title=Why Obama Waited|url=http://www.politico.com/story/2016/06/obama-hillary-clinton-endorsement-224153|access-date=June 10, 2016|work=Politico|date=June 9, 2016}}</ref> However, according to Glenn Thrush of [[Politico]], Obama had long supported Clinton as his preferred successor, and Obama dissuaded Vice President Biden from running against Clinton.<ref name="partyoftwo">{{cite news|last1=Thrush|first1=Glenn|title=Party of Two|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/07/2016-barack-obama-hillary-clinton-democratic-establishment-campaign-primary-joe-biden-elizabeth-warren-214023|access-date=July 18, 2016|work=Politico|date=July 2016}}</ref> Obama spoke in favor of Clinton at the [[2016 Democratic National Convention]], and he continued to campaign for Clinton and other Democrats in the months leading up to Election Day.<ref name="mrhodan1">{{cite news|last1=Rhodan|first1=Maya|title=President Obama Is Now Campaigning for His Legacy|url=http://time.com/4526075/hillary-clinton-barack-obama-campaigning/|access-date=October 18, 2016|work=Time|date=October 10, 2016}}</ref> However, in the general election, Clinton was defeated by Republican nominee [[Donald Trump]], who prominently [[Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories|questioned]] Obama's place of birth during Obama's first term.<ref name=asilverleib/> Republicans also retained control of the House and Senate. During the eight years of Obama's presidency, the Democratic Party experienced a net loss of 1,041 governorships and state and federal legislative seats.<ref>{{cite web | title=Democrats Lost Over 1,000 Seats Under Obama | url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2016/12/27/democrats-lost-over-1000-seats-under-obama.html?refresh=true | date=December 27, 2016 | work=[[Fox News]] | access-date=December 27, 2016}}</ref> Ronald Brownstein of ''[[The Atlantic]]'' noted that these losses were similar to those of other post-World War II two-term presidents.<ref name="brownsteain11217">{{cite news|last1=Brownstein|first1=Ronald|title=What Happens to the Democratic Party After Obama?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/the-post-obama-democratic-party/512885/|access-date=January 12, 2017|work=The Atlantic|date=January 12, 2017}}</ref><ref name="cmalone1">{{cite news|last1=Malone|first1=Claire|title=Barack Obama Won The White House, But Democrats Lost The Country|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/barack-obama-won-the-white-house-but-democrats-lost-the-country/|access-date=January 20, 2017|work=Fivethirtyeight|date=January 19, 2017}}</ref> Trump and Obama frequently communicated during the [[United States presidential transition|transition period]], and Trump stated that he sought Obama's advice regarding presidential appointments.<ref name="tnaftali1">{{cite news|last1=Naftali|first1=Tim|title=Why Trump and Obama are phone buddies|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/08/opinions/obama-trump-consultations-naftali/|access-date=December 9, 2016|work=CNN|date=December 8, 2016}}</ref> However, President-elect Trump also criticized some of Obama's actions, including Obama's refusal to veto a UN Resolution condemning Israel settlements.<ref name="Wagnerroadblocks1">{{cite news|last1=Wagner|first1=John|title=Trump accuses Obama of putting up 'roadblocks' to a smooth transition|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/12/28/trump-accuses-obama-of-putting-up-roadblocks-to-a-smooth-transition/|access-date=December 28, 2016|work=The Washington Post|date=December 28, 2016}}</ref> In his [[Barack Obama's farewell address|farewell address]], Obama expressed concerns about a divisive political environment, economic inequality, and racism, but remained optimistic about the future.<ref name="wpfarewell">{{cite news|last1=Eilperin|first1=Juliet|last2=Greg|first2=Jaffe|title=In stark farewell, Obama warns of threat to U. S. democracy|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-heads-home-to-chicago-to-say-farewell-the-nation/2017/01/10/bd7c7e3a-d6ad-11e6-9a36-1d296534b31e_story.html|access-date=January 11, 2017|work=The Washington Post|date=January 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name="nytfarewell">{{cite news|last1=Landler|first1=Mark|last2=Bosman|first2=Julie|title=Obama, Saying Goodbye, Warns of Threats to National Unity|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/11/us/obama-farewell-address-president.html|access-date=January 11, 2017|work=The New York Times|date=January 11, 2017}}</ref> ==Approval ratings and other opinions== {{Siehe auch|Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States|United States presidential approval rating|Public image of Barack Obama}} {| class="wikitable sortable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; |+ [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll [[United States presidential approval rating|approval ratings]]<ref name=Galluppolls>{{cite web|title=Presidential Approval Ratings -- Barack Obama|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/116479/barack-obama-presidential-job-approval.aspx|website=Gallup|publisher=Gallup|access-date=January 6, 2017}} The first poll of the month is used for each table entry.</ref> |- ! class="unsortable" | Date ! Approve ! Disapprove |- | Jan 2009 | 67 | 13 |- | July 2009 | 58 | 34 |- | Jan 2010 | 51 | 43 |- | July 2010 | 46 | 47 |- | Jan 2011 | 48 | 45 |- | July 2011 | 46 | 45 |- | Jan 2012 | 46 | 47 |- | July 2012 | 45 | 46 |- | Jan 2013 | 53 | 40 |- | July 2013 | 46 | 46 |- | Jan 2014 | 41 | 53 |- | July 2014 | 42 | 53 |- | Jan 2015 | 46 | 48 |- | July 2015 | 46 | 49 |- | Jan 2016 | 47 | 49 |- | Jul 2016 | 51 | 45 |- | Jan 2017 | 55 | 42 |} After his transition period, Obama entered office with an approval rating of 82% according to [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]],<ref name=latimesar>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/washington/2009/01/obama-approval.html|title=Barack Obama's initial approval rating is highest since JFK|access-date=January 28, 2009|work=Los Angeles Times | date=January 27, 2009}}</ref> Obama's approval rating fell to 69% after he took office and announced his first policy decisions.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> Obama received the support of 90% of Democrats, 60% of independents, and 40% of Republicans in January 2009 polls.<ref name=Galluppollsb>{{cite web|title=Presidential Approval Ratings -- Barack Obama|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/116479/barack-obama-presidential-job-approval.aspx|website=Gallup|publisher=Gallup|access-date=January 25, 2017}}.</ref> By December 2009, Obama's approval rating had fallen to 51%, with Obama receiving approval from roughly 85% of Democrats, 45% of independents, and just 18% of Republicans.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> In July 2010, after the passage of the Dodd-Frank and Obamacare, Obama's approval rating stood at 45%, with 47% disapproving.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> Obama's approval rating would remain stable until the 2010 elections,<ref name=Galluppollsb/> when Republicans won major gains in both houses of Congress and took control of the House.<ref name=pkane>{{cite news|last1=Kane|first1=Paul|title=Resurgent Republicans take back control of the House|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/03/us/politics/03elect.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=November 18, 2015|work=The Washington Post|date=November 3, 2010}}</ref> Obama's approval ratings climbed back to 50% in January 2011, but fell to 40% in August 2011 following the [[United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011|2011 debt-ceiling crisis]].<ref name=Galluppollsb/> Obama's approval ratings slowly increased during 2012, and they rose above 50% shortly before the 2012 election, in which Obama defeated [[Mitt Romney]].<ref name=Galluppollsb/> After his re-election, Obama's approval ratings reached 57%, but that number fell into the low 40s after the [[United States federal government shutdown of 2013|federal government shutdown]] in October 2013.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> Obama's approval ratings remained in the mid-to-low 40s until the [[2014 United States elections|2014 elections]], when Republicans won gains in both houses of Congress and took control of the Senate.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> In 2015, Obama's approval ratings climbed to the mid-to-high 40s, with his approval and disapproval ratings roughly matching each other.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> His approval ratings rose into the 50s during the 2016 presidential campaign, and Obama registered a 57% approval rating in November 2016.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> In a Gallup poll taken in the final week of his presidency, Obama registered a 95% approval rating with Democrats, a 61% approval rating with independents, and a 14% approval rating with Republicans.<ref name=Galluppollsb/> Obama's election also provoked a reaction to his race, birthplace, and religion. As president, Obama faced numerous taunts and racial innuendos, though most overt racist comments were limited to a small fringe.<ref name=snetter>{{cite news|last1=Netter|first1=Sarah|title=Racism in Obama's America One Year Later|url=https://abcnews.go.com/WN/Obama/racism-obamas-america-year/story?id=9638178|access-date=November 18, 2015|publisher=ABC|date=January 27, 2010}}</ref> [[Donald Trump]] theorized that Obama had [[Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories|been born]] in [[Kenya]]; an April 2011 CNN poll taken shortly before Obama released his long-form birth certificate found that 40% of Republicans believed that Obama had been born in Kenya.<ref name=asilverleib>{{cite news|last1=Silverleib|first1=Alan|title=Obama releases original long-form birth certificate|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/POLITICS/04/27/obama.birth.certificate/|access-date=November 18, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=April 27, 2011}}</ref> Many of these "birthers" argued that because Obama was (allegedly) not a citizen, he was not eligible to serve as president under the [[Natural-born-citizen clause|natural-born-citizen]] requirements of the Constitution. Despite Obama's release of his long-form birth certificate, which affirmed that Obama was born in Hawaii, a 2015 [[CNN]] poll found that 20% of Americans believed that Obama was born outside of the country.<ref name=jagiesta/> Many also [[Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories|claimed]] that Obama practiced [[Islam]], and a 2015 CNN poll found that 29% of Americans and 43% of Republicans believed Obama to be a Muslim.<ref name=jagiesta>{{cite news|last1=Agiesta|first1=Jennifer|title=Misperceptions persist about Obama's faith, but aren't so widespread|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/13/politics/barack-obama-religion-christian-misperceptions/|access-date=November 18, 2015|publisher=CNN|date=September 14, 2015}}</ref> Even prior to his election as president, Obama had clarified that he was a long-time member of a church affiliated with the [[United Church of Christ]], a [[mainline Protestant]] denomination.<ref name=obamareligion>{{cite news|title=Obama sets record straight on his religion|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/22767392/ns/politics-decision_08/t/obama-sets-record-straight-his-religion/|access-date=November 18, 2015|agency=Associated Press|publisher=NBC|date=January 21, 2008}}</ref> In a January 2010 survey by the [[Siena Research Institute]] at [[Siena College]] in [[Loudonville, New York]]—one year into the Obama presidency—238 U.S. history and political science professors ranked Obama 15th of 43 U.S. presidents.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lonnstrom|first1=Douglas A.|last2=Kelly|first2=Thomas O., II|date=September 2003|title=The contemporary presidency: rating the presidents: a tracking study|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=33|issue=3|pages=625–634|doi=10.1111/1741-5705.00009|url=http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~jcampbel/documents/LonnstromKellyPresSQ2003.pdf}}</ref> In a September 2010 survey by the United States Presidency Centre of the [[Institute for the Study of the Americas]] at the [[University of London]] [[School of Advanced Study]]—one year and eight months into the Obama presidency—47 unnamed respondents who were UK academic specialists on American history and politics ranked 40 of 42 U.S. presidents from 1789 to 2009, not including Obama; if Obama had been included he would have ranked 8th, behind Harry S. Truman but ahead of Ronald Reagan and all other post-World War II U.S. presidents.<ref>{{cite web|author=United States Presidency Centre, Institute for the Studies of the Americas|date=January 10, 2011|title=Results of first UK scholars' survey of US presidents: George Washington to Barack Obama to be released 17 January 2011|location=London|publisher=University of London School of Advanced Study|url=http://www.sas.ac.uk/about-us/news/results-first-uk-scholars-survey-us-presidents-george-washington-barack-obama-be-relea|access-date=October 7, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Morgan|first=Iwan|date=January 17, 2011|title=UK survey of US presidents: results and analysis; Franklin D. Roosevelt comes first; George W. Bush is in bottom ten; Barack Obama is highly rated|location=London|publisher=United States Presidency Centre, Institute for the Study of the Americas, University of London School of Advanced Study|url=http://www.community-languages.org.uk/US-presidency-survey/pdf/analysis.pdf|access-date=October 7, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Morgan|first=Iwan|date=January 17, 2011|title=The top US presidents: first poll of UK experts|location=London|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-12195111|access-date=October 7, 2014}}</ref> In a June 2012 survey by ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine—three years and five months into the Obama presidency—ten selected American historians and biographers ranked Obama 10th of 20 U.S. presidents since 1900.<ref>{{cite web|date=September 24, 2012|title=From Franklin Delano Roosevelt to John F. Kennedy, Newsweek's 10 best presidents (photos)|location=New York|work=The Daily Beast|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/galleries/2012/09/24/from-franklin-delano-roosevelt-to-john-f-kennedy-newsweek-s-10-best-presidents-photos.html|access-date=October 7, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kevles|first=Daniel|date=Autumn 2012|title=The 10 best American presidents; understanding what makes our greatest modern presidents great|magazine=Newsweek|pages=26–28}}</ref> In an April 2013 survey by [[History News Network]] (HNN) website in Seattle—four years and three months into the Obama presidency—203 scholars from 69 top U.S. colleges and universities gave Obama a B- grade on an A–F scale.<ref>{{cite web|date=September 10, 2013|title=Historians give Barack Obama a B-|location=Seattle|publisher=History News Network|url=http://hnn.us/article/153229|access-date=October 7, 2014}}</ref> A February 2015 [[Brookings Institution]] survey of members of the [[American Political Science Association]] put Obama in 18th place out of the 43 presidents.<ref name=rottinghaus>{{cite news|last1=Rottinghaus|first1=Brandon|title=Measuring Obama against the great presidents|url=http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/fixgov/posts/2015/02/13-obama-measuring-presidential-greatness-vaughn-rottinghaus|access-date=November 16, 2015|publisher=Brookings Institution|date=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Additionally, a 2011 Gallup poll found that 5% of Americans saw Obama as the country's greatest president.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2015/02/13/measuring-obama-against-the-great-presidents/|title=Measuring Obama against the great presidents {{!}} Brookings Institution|date=March 9, 2017|work=Brookings|access-date=March 9, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> As Obama left office, historians expressed various opinions about his effectiveness as president, with many noting that subsequent events would determine his ultimate legacy.<ref name="timehistorians1">{{cite news|title=10 Historians on What Will Be Said About President Obama's Legacy|url=http://time.com/4632190/historians-obamas-legacy/|access-date=January 19, 2017|publisher=Time|date=January 18, 2017}}</ref><ref name="lewisdjupe1">{{cite news|last1=Lewis|first1=Andrew|last2=Djupe|first2=Paul|title=How Will Obama Be Graded By History?|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-will-obama-be-graded-by-history/|access-date=January 19, 2017|publisher=Fivethirtyeight|date=January 18, 2017}}</ref> There was universal agreement that Obama would long be remembered as the first African-American president.<ref name="timehistorians1"/><ref name="lewisdjupe1"/><ref name="feldmann1">{{cite news|last1=Feldmann|first1=Linda|title=Was Barack Obama a transformative president?|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2017/0118/Was-Barack-Obama-a-transformative-president|access-date=January 19, 2017|publisher=Christian Science Monitor|date=January 18, 2017}}</ref> Many noted that Obama presided over an economic recovery and passed major domestic legislation, but failed to bridge a partisan divide and left office with his party in a weakened state.<ref name="timehistorians1"/> == Cultural influence == ''[[Vox (website)|Vox]]'' and ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' both named the American sitcom ''[[Parks and Recreation]]'' as the television show that "defined" the cultural [[zeitgeist]] of the Presidency of Barack Obama.<ref>{{Cite web|last=VanDerWerff|first=Emily|date=2017-01-19|title=The past 10 presidencies, explained by the TV shows that defined them|url=https://www.vox.com/culture/2017/1/19/14288694/presidents-tv|access-date=2020-08-21|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> In the same article, ''Rolling Stone'' named ''[[Breaking Bad]]'', ''[[Veep]]'' and ''[[Empire (2015 TV series)|Empire]]'' as other television shows that defined the era.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Sepinwall|first1=Alan|date=2020-07-05|title=All the Presidents' TV Shows: Series That Defined Each Era|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv-lists/president-tv-series-defined-era-994869/|access-date=2020-08-21|website=Rolling Stone|language=en-US}}</ref> ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'' wrote that <blockquote>[''Parks and Rec''] exemplified a kind of American optimism about the idea that public service is an ultimate good. But the series was also laced with the progressiveness that would cause many to turn against Obama. Though protagonist Leslie Knope believes she’s doing the best for her constituents, they see her as out of touch with their real needs—no matter how ridiculous those "real needs" might be.</blockquote> [[Alan Sepinwall]] wrote in ''Rolling Stone'': <blockquote>Few series in recent memory have been as clearly tied to a moment — and, specifically, a presidential administration — as Parks and Rec. The show’s belief in the power of government to make people’s lives better — and, more broadly, in the obligation members of a community (be they friends, family, or, as Ron Swanson once put it, “workplace proximity associates”) have to help one another in times of need — made it the standard-bearer for the hopefulness of the Obama era.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sepinwall |first1=Alan |last2=Portwood |first2=Jerry |date=July 5, 2020 |title=All the Presidents' TV Shows: Series That Defined Each Era |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv-lists/president-tv-series-defined-era-994869/ |access-date=August 21, 2020 |website=Rolling Stone |language=en-US |archive-date=November 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114234425/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv-lists/president-tv-series-defined-era-994869/ |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote> ==See also== {{Portal|United States|Politics}} {{Div col}} * [[Speeches of Barack Obama]] * [[List of people pardoned by Barack Obama]] * [[List of federal political scandals in the United States#Barack Obama administration (2009–2017)|Federal political scandals, Barack Obama administration]] * [[Roberts Court]] * [[Barack Obama]] * [[Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign]] {{End div col}} ==Notes== # {{note|timeline}} A small portion of the 111th Congress (January 3, 2009 – January 19, 2009) took place under President Bush, while only a small portion of the 115th Congress (January 3, 2017 – January 19, 2017) took place during Obama's second term. # {{note|fiscalyear}} The income, outlay, and deficit numbers reflect [[fiscal year]]s which last from October to September; for example, the 2014 fiscal year lasted from October 2013 to September 2014. # {{note|Clintontaxes}} Numbers reflect post-[[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993|OBRA 93]] tax brackets. # {{note|Bushtaxes}} Numbers reflect post-[[Bush tax cuts]] tax brackets. # {{note|Obamataxes}} Numbers reflect post-[[American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012]] tax brackets. # {{note|Congress}} Democratic seats at the start of each session of Congress. Independents caucusing with the Democratic Party (Senators [[Bernie Sanders]], [[Joe Lieberman]], and [[Angus King]]) are counted as Democrats for the purposes of this table. Throughout Obama's presidency, there were a total of 100 Senate seats in 435 House seats, so a Democratic majority in the Senate required 50 seats (since Democratic vice president [[Joe Biden]] could provide the [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by Vice Presidents of the United States|tie-breaking vote]]), and a Democratic majority in the House required 218 seats (assuming no vacancies). # {{note|Congress2}} In 2009, Democrats briefly gained a "[[filibuster in the United States Senate|filibuster]]-proof" 60 Senate seats after [[Al Franken]] won an [[United States Senate election in Minnesota, 2008|extremely close election]] and [[Arlen Specter]] switched parties, but the number of Senate Democrats went down to 59 seats after [[Scott Brown (politician)|Scott Brown]] won a [[United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010|January 2010 special election]] in Massachusetts. # {{note|Ryan2015}} [[Paul Ryan]] succeeded John Boehner as Speaker of the House in October 2015. ==Further reading== * {{cite book |last=Alter |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Alter |title=The Promise: President Obama, Year One |url=https://archive.org/details/promisepresident00alte |url-access=registration |date=2011 |isbn=978-1439101193 |ref=none}} * {{cite book|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|title=Obama: The Call of History|date=2017|publisher=New York Times/Callaway|isbn=978-0935112900|ref=none}} * Bald, Dan, ed. ''Collision 2012: Obama vs. Romney and the future of elections in America'' (2012) [https://www.amazon.com/Collision-2012-Election-Politics-Divided-ebook/dp/B00AEBEUHO/ excerpt] * Congressional Quarterly. ''Congress and the Nation: Volume 13: 2009-2012'' (CQ Press, 2013) [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781452270340/page/n5/mode/2up online], 1075 pp of highly detailed coverage of all major themes ** Congressional Quarterly. ''Congress and the Nation: Volume 14: 2012-2016'' (CQ Press, 2017) * Conley, Richard S., and Kevin Baron. "Obama’s ‘Hidden-Hand’ Presidency: Myth, Metaphor, or Misrepresentation?." ''White House Studies'' 13 (2015): 129-57. * {{cite book |editor-last=Crotty |editor-first=William |title=The Obama Presidency: Promise and Performance |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-0739172346|ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-0415887700 |title=The Obama Presidency: Change and Continuity |last1=Dowdle |first1=Andrew |last2=Van Raemdonck |first2=Dirk C. |last3=Maranto |first3=Robert |year=2011 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-0313398438 |url=https://archive.org/details/grading44thpresi0000unse |title=Grading the 44th President: A Report Card on Barack Obama's First Term as a Progressive Leader |last1=Esposito |first1=Luigi |last2=Finley |first2=Laura L. |year=2012 |url-access=registration |ref=none}} * Frankel, Jeffrey A. and Peter R. Orszag, eds. ''American Economic Policy in the 1990s'' (2002) [https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/20011102.pdf introduction] * Gaman-Golutvina, Oxana. "Political elites in the USA under George W. Bush and Barack Obama: Structure and international politics." ''Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung'' 43.4 (2018): 141-163. [https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/60770/ssoar-hsr-2018-4-gaman-golutvina-Political_Elites_in_the_USA.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&lnkname=ssoar-hsr-2018-4-gaman-golutvina-Political_Elites_in_the_USA.pdf online] * Garrow, David J. ''Rising Star: The Making of Barack Obama'' (HarperCollins, 2017). [https://www.amazon.com/Rising-Star-Making-Barack-Obama-ebook/dp/B01KFBO82E/ excerpt] * Goolsbee, Austan D., and Alan B. Krueger. "A retrospective look at rescuing and restructuring General Motors and Chrysler." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 29.2 (2015): 3-24. [https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.29.2.3 online] * Grunwald, Michael. ''The new New Deal: the hidden story of change in the Obama era'' (2012), by TIME magazine editor. [https://www.amazon.com/New-Deal-Hidden-Story-Change/dp/1451642326/ excerpt] * {{cite book |isbn=978-0815721826 |title=Bending History: Barack Obama's Foreign Policy |last1=Indyk |first1=Martin |last2=Lieberthal |first2=Kenneth |last3=O'Hanlon |first3=Michael E. |year=2012 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Gates |first=Robert M. |author-link=Robert M. Gates |isbn=978-0307959478 |title=Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=2014 |title-link=Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War |ref=none}}; a pr1imary source * Green, Michael J. ''By more than providence: grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783'' (2017) [https://www.amazon.com/More-Than-Providence-American-East-Relations/dp/0231180438/ excerpt] pp 518–40. * Kesler, Charles R. ''I am the change: Barack Obama and the crisis of liberalism'' (2012); comparing Obama to Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt, and Lyndon Johnson. [https://www.amazon.com/Am-Change-Barack-Future-Liberalism/dp/0062073028/ excerpt] * {{cite book |isbn=978-0199383375 |title=Obama's Time: A History |last1=Keller |first1=Morton |year=2015 |ref=none}} * Lansford, Tom, et al. ''Leadership and Legacy: The Presidency of Barack Obama'' (SUNY 2021), 320pp [https://www.amazon.com/Leadership-Legacy-Presidency-Barack-Contemporary/dp/143848187X/ excerpt] * Maass, Matthias. ''The World Views of the Obama Era'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). * {{cite journal |doi=10.1353/aq.2011.0012 |title=To "Choose Our Better History": Assessing the Obama Presidency in Real Time |journal=American Quarterly |volume=63 |pages=179–189 |year=2011 |last1=McElya |first1=Micki |s2cid=145168784 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-0670023769 |title=The Obamians: The Struggle Inside the White House to Redefine American Power |url=https://archive.org/details/obamiansstruggle0000mann |url-access=registration |last1=Mann |first1=Jim |year=2012 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-1538111512 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Barack Obama Administration |last1=Pomante (Ii) |first1=Michael J. |last2=Schraufnagel |first2=Scot |year=2018 |ref=none}} * Rich, Wilbur C. ''Looking Back on President Barack Obama’s Legacy: Hope and Change'' (2019) * {{cite book |isbn=978-1608716852 |title=The Obama Presidency: Appraisals and Prospects |last1=Rockman |first1=Bert A. |last2=Rudalevige |first2=Andrew |last3=Campbell |first3=Colin |date=July 26, 2011|ref=none }} * {{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Jerry M. |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of The Great Recession 2007–2012|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000rose|url-access=registration |year=2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press 2nd edition 708pp |isbn=9780810883406|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00910.x |title="A Majority is the Best Repartee": Barack Obama and Congress, 2009-2012 |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=93 |issue=5 |pages=1272–1294 |year=2012 |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1111/psq.12323 |title=The Contemporary Presidency: The Obama Administrative Presidency: Some Late-Term Patterns |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=868–890 |year=2016 |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165X.2012.tb00718.x |title=Accomplished and Embattled: Understanding Obama's Presidency |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=127 |pages=1–24 |year=2012 |last1=Skocpol |first1=Theda |last2=Jacobs |first2=Lawrence R.|ref=none }} * {{cite book |jstor=10.7758/9781610447119 |title=Reaching for a New Deal |year=2011 |chapter=Ambitious Governance, Economic Meltdown, and Polarized Politics in Obama's First Two Years |isbn=9780871548559 |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-1594519932 |url=https://archive.org/details/obamainoffice0000unse |title=Obama in Office |last1=Thurber |first1=James A. |year=2011 |url-access=registration |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-1-4384-4329-4 |title=The Obama Presidency: A Preliminary Assessment |last1=Watson |first1=Robert P. |last2=Covarrubias |first2=Jack |last3=Lansford |first3=Tom |last4=Brattebo |first4=Douglas M. |date=July 2012|ref=none }} * White, John Kenneth. ''Barack Obama's America: how new conceptions of race, family, and religion ended the Reagan era'' (University of Michigan Press, 2009). * {{cite book |isbn=978-1594514777 |title=President Barack Obama: A More Perfect Union |last1=Wilson |first1=John K. |year=2009 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |isbn=978-0691160283 |title=The Presidency of Barack Obama: A First Historical Assessment |last1=Zelizer |first1=Julian E. |year=2018 |ref=none}} ==Weblinks== * [https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ Obama White House archives] * {{YouTube|channel=UCDGknzyQfNiThyt4vg4MlTQ|title=The Obama White House}} * [https://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/magazine/2009-inauguration-gallery/index.html "Obama's People"] (Fotograf: Nadav Kander) * [https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/inaugural-address "President Barack Obama's Inaugural Address"]. The White House. * [https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/09/03/26/Wrapping-Up-Open-for-Questions/ "Wrapping Up Open for Questions"]. The White House. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110131124844/http://www.cspan.org/Events/President-Obamas-State-of-the-Union-Address/10737419121-6/ "President Obama's State of the Union Address"] C-SPAN. * [https://www.npr.org/2017/01/19/510491692/the-america-donald-trump-is-inheriting-by-the-numbers Statistics comparing the beginning and ending of the Obama presidency] == Einzelnachweise == == Einzelnachweise == <references>  <ref name=shane3>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/28/world/americas/28leak.html |title=U.S. Analyst Is Indicted in Leak Case |date=August 27, 2010 |first=Scott |last=Shane |author-link=Scott Shane |work=The New York Times |access-date=March 11, 2011 }}</ref> <ref name=harri1>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonian.com/2011/01/25/indictment-continues-obama-administrations-war-on-leaks/ |title=Indictment Continues Obama administration's War on Leaks |first=Shane |last=Harris |author-link=Shane Harris |work=[[Washingtonian (magazine)|washingtonian]] |date=January 25, 2011 |access-date=March 9, 2011 }}</ref> <ref name=naka2>{{cite news |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/checkpoint-washington/2010/11/setback_in_case_against_accuse.html |title=Setback in case against accused NSA leaker |first=Ellen |last=Nakashima |work=The Washington Post |date=November 29, 2010 |access-date=March 10, 2011 }}</ref> <ref name=shane2>{{cite news |title=Obama Takes a Hard Line Against Leaks to Press |author-link=Scott Shane |first=Scott |last=Shane |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 11, 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/12/us/politics/12leak.html}}</ref> </references>

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