Benutzer:MRewald/Politische Säuberungen in Korea

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In Korea gab es im späten 15. und der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhundert vier politische Intellektuellen-Pogrome, 1498, 1504, 1519 und 1545. Im Koreanischen werden diese Pogrome Sahwa genannt (Hangeul:

사화

, Hanji:

士禍

). Die wörtliche Übersetzung der chinesischen Schriftzeichen bedeutet in etwa Gelehrten-Unglück oder -Kummer. In der englischsprachigen Literatur hat sich der Begriff Literati purges eingebürgert, wörtlich in etwa Literaten-Säuberungen. Er wurde geprägt von Edward W. Wagner einem Harvard-Professor für koreanische Geschichte.

Einleitung

Die Politik in der Mitte der Joseon-Dynastie war in erster Linie geprägt durch einen Machtkampf zwischen zwei aristokratischen yangban Interessengruppen - der etablierten Hungu Machtelite und einer aufstrebenden Gruppe von gut ausgebildeten Intellektuellen aus wohlhabenden Familien, den Sarim (manchmal auch Saarim geschrieben), was soviel bedeutet wie Wald der Gelehrten. Sie waren Anhänger des Neokonfuzianismus und prangerten die herrschende Korruption an. Sie wurden Seonbi (Hangeul:

선비

) genannt, übersetzt in etwa Tugendhafter Gelehrter oder - Wissenschaftler. Entstanden war diese Bewegung aus einer Gruppe von Schülern von Kim Jong-jik (Hangul:

김종직

, 1431–1492), der oft auch mit seinem Schrifstellernamen Jeompiljae (Hangeul:

점필재

) genannt wird.

Englisch

The Sarim scholars generally shunned the royal court and studied neo-Confucianism in rural provinces especially after King Sejo's usurpation of throne in 1455, but they began to enter politics during the reign of King Seongjong. They primarily occupied key positions in so-called "Three Offices" (삼사), collective name for Office of Inspector General (whose main role was to impeach government officials for corrupt or improper actions), Office of Censors (whose function to criticize the improper actions and policies of the king and ministers), and Hongmoongwan (library cum advisory council that taught the king history and Confucian teachings). They were also well represented in Spring Autumn Office, where government records were kept and historiographers worked. From these organs that were designed to check the power of the king and central government, the Sarim scholars challenged the entrenched Hungu faction, who held key positions in State Council and Six Ministries that carried out state affairs, by impeaching them for corruption or impropriety. The subsequent conflict between two factions resulted in four bloody purges between 1498 and 1545.

Muo Sahwa — Das erste Intellektuellenpogrom 1498

Die ersten beiden Intellektuellenpogrome fanden während der Regierungszeit von König Yeonsangun statt.

Das erste Pogrom, in Korea auch Muo Sahwa (Hangeul:

무오사화

, Hanji:

戊午士禍

) genannt, begann als ein persönlicher Racheakt, von Yi Guk-don, nachdem Kim Il-son ein Amtsenthebungsverfahren gegen ihn veranlasst hatte.

Die Vorgeschichte begann damit, dass im Jahr 1455 (also 43 Jahre zuvor) Sejo gegen seinen Neffen putschte, um selbst den Thron zu besteigen. Kim Jong-jik ein Gelehrter und Hofbeamter und Begründer der Sarimbewegung, hatte eine Schrift verfasst, in der er diesen Putsch kritisierte. Yi Guk-don und Kim Il-son waren Schreiber am königlichen Hof unter der Herrschaft von König Seongjong. Ihre Aufgabe war es die Regierungstagebücher zu führen. Kim Il-son, ein Schüler von Kim Jong-jik, nahm dessen kritische Schrift in die Regierungstagebücher mit auf.

Beide hatten die Aufgabe, für König Seongjong die Regierungstagebücher zu führen. Kim Il-son, ein Schüler von Kim Jong-jik (dem Begründer der Sarimbewegung) nahm eines von dessen Schriftstück in die Regierungstagebücher auf, dass sich kritisch mit der gewaltsamen Machtübernahme von König Sejo auseinandersetzte, der 1455 seinen Neffen vom Thron verstoßen hatte.

The First Literati Purge of 1498, also called Muo Sahwa (무오사화, 戊午士禍), began as a personal grudge of Yi Guk-don against Kim Il-son, who once impeached him. Both were assigned to compile records related to King Seongjong's reign for Annals of Joseon Dynasty, and Kim Il-son, a disciple of Kim Jong-jik, included the latter's writing that was critical of King Sejo's usurpation in the compilation. (Kim Jong-jik wrote a lamentation of Xiang Yu's murder of Emperor Yi of Chu in early Chinese history after he heard of Danjong's death at the order of King Sejo.) When Yi Guk-don, Kim Il-son's superior, found this out, he sensed a chance of revenge. Kim Il-son and other followers of Kim Jong-jik were accused of treason by the Hungu faction, many of whom originally gained power from their support of Sejo. Because Yeonsangun's lineage came from Sejo, Sarim faction's view of Sejo's usurpation was considered to be treasonable. Yeonsangun - who disliked academia and was notorious for turning Seonggyungwan, royal study of hall, into his personal brothel - found an opportunnity to purge the Sarim scholars and weaken Three Offices. Kim Il-son and two others were "drawn and quartered" (each limb was pulled apart by ox) while three were beheaded. Kim Jong-jik's remains were excavated and then beheaded, and at least 18 others were exiled. Yeonsangun ordered the entire court officials to watch Kim's execution and even ordered that those who did not attend or turned face away be reported so that they might be punished.

Second Literati Purge of 1504

The Second Literati Purge of 1504, or Kapcha Sahwa (갑자사화, 甲子士禍), followed when Yeonsangun eventually discovered that his real mother was not Queen Jung-hyeon but Consort Yoon, who was executed in 1482 for poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and making a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When later Yeonsangun was told of details of his mother's death and was presented with a piece of clothing stained with blood vomited by her upon poisoning, he killed two of Seongjong's concubines who were responsible and then ordered execution of officials who supported Consort Yoon's death. This event struck both Hungu and remnants of Sarim factions indiscriminately, including the instigators of the first purge. At least 36 officials were executed (by drinking poison) and remains of eight deceased officials were mutilated. The actual death toll was much greater because victims' families and relatives were punished as well - male members being killed and female members enslaved. In the end, 239 officials were affected by the event with execution, exile, or dismissal. Yeonsangun was eventually deposed by the remaining Hungu officials, and his half-brother Jungjong became the eleventh king of Joseon in 1506.

Third Literati Purge of 1519

Jo Gwang-jo

The Third Literati Purge of 1519, also called Kimyo Sahwa or Gimyo Sahwa (기묘사화, 己卯士禍), is one of most discussed literati purges in Joseon Dynasty because the Sarim faction held political power and was in the process of carrying out significant reforms at the time of their purge.

Jungjong worked to remove excesses of Yeonsangun and return to Seongjong's era, but his royal authority was limited due to powerful presence of coup leaders who put him on the throne. Only when the three main leaders of coup died of old age and natural causes eight years later, Jungjong began to assert his authority and look for ways to restrain Hungu faction's power. He soon found an answer in Jo Gwang-jo, a young and energetic leader of the Sarim faction, who soon became Jungjong's most trusted official. He enjoyed such a complete confidence of Jungjong that Jungjong abandoned a planned war at the sole opposition by Jo. With Jungjong's support, Jo rose to become an Inspector General only four years after entering politics in a series of unprecedented promotions and brought in many like-minded, young Sarim scholars from rural provinces to Jungjong's court. Under his leadership, the Sarim faction pushed forth a series of reforms as they established local self-government system called Hyang'yak, pursued land reforms to distribute land more equally and limit amount of land owned by the rich, promulgated Confucian beliefs widely among the public with vernacular translations, and sought to reduce the number of slaves. Jo believed that any talented people including slaves should be appointed as officials regardless of social status. (For instance, he met a nameless butcher/tanner of lowest class and admired his learning so much that he discussed state affairs with him and wanted to appoint him as a government official.) According to Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace or local provinces during this time because of strict enforcement by Inspector General's Office. He was admired so much by populace that when he appeared on streets people gathered before him saying, "Our master is coming," according to famous Korean philosopher Yi I.

However, these radical reforms generated fierce hostility and resistance of the Hungu faction. Jo also made many political enemies by impeaching many of the so-called heroes of 1506 coup. Especially when Jo argued that many of the alleged contributors to 1506 coup did not actually contribute to the coup and revoked their special privileges (including tax exemptions and huge stipends), the Hungu faction began to plot Jo's downfall. In early 1519, there was a plot by some Hungu officials to assassinate Sarim officials, which was discovered in time.

"Jo Will Become King"

Jo's uncompromising character and his frequent remonstrations to Jungjong to support his radical programs also began to irritate the king. Furthermore, Consort Gyeong of Park clan and Consort Hui of Hong clan (Hungu faction leader Hong Kyung-ju's daughter) sought to estrange Jungjong and Jo Gwang-jo by often questioning Jo's loyalty and claiming that popular support was shifting to Jo. At the behest of Hong Kyung-ju, Minister of Rites Nam Gon, and Shim Jung, and other Hungu leaders, they told Jungjong that people were saying that it was actually Jo Gwang-jo who ruled the country and that people wanted to make him their king. Even if Jo was not disloyal, he would not be able to stop his supporters from doing so, they said.

According to Annals of Joseon Dynasty, Nam Gon now set out to slander Jo and wrote a phrase "Ju cho will become the king" (주초위왕, 走肖爲王)" with honey or sugary water on mulberry leaves so that caterpillars left behind such phrase on leaves. When two Hanja (Chinese) characters "ju"(走) and "cho"(肖) are put together, they form a new Hanja character "jo"(趙), which happens to be Jo Gwang-jo's family name. Consort Hong or Consort Park showed the leaf to Jungjong and claimed that this was the heaven's warning that Jo would take the throne himself after eliminating Hungu faction. Jungjong, who himself rose to the throne through a coup d'état, began to distrust Jo Gwang-jo. [It should be noted that when Goryeo dynasty fell and was replaced by Joseon dynasty, there was popular saying "Son of wood will gain the country" (목자득국 木子得國). When two Hanja characters meaning wood(木) and son(子) are combined, they form a new character "yi"(李), which happens to be the family name of Yi Seoung-gye, who deposed the last king of Goryeo and founded Joseon dynasty. These phrases helped Yi Seoung-gye win popular support for the new dynasty as heaven's will.]

Now feeling certain that Jungjong was sufficiently estranged from Jo, Hong Kyung-ju secretly entered the palace to warn King Jungjong that the court was filled with Jo's supporters and that no one could dare oppose him openly. When Jo petitioned Jungjong to revoke special privileges of people who falsely contributed to 1506 coup, Jungjong's suspicion was further heightened. Jungjong dispatched a secret letter to Hong Kyung-ju, expressing his fear that Jo Gwang-jo would next go on to question legitimacy of the coup and then turn against him. Jungjong instructed Hungu leaders to kill Jo Gwang-jo and then inform him. On November 15, 1519, Hungu leaders entered the palace secretly at night to bypass Royal Secretariat and present to the king written charges against Jo: he and his supporters deceived the king and put the state in disorder by forming a clique and abusing their positions to promote their supporters while excluding their opponents. Inspector Jo Gwang-jo, Justice Minister Kim Jung, and six others were immediately arrested, and they were about to be killed extrajudicially without trial or even investigation. The whole event had appearance of coup d'état except that it was sanctioned by the king.

"What Is Their Crime?"

They would have been immediately killed except that War Minister Yi Jang-gon, who arrested Sarim officials, entreated that ministers should be consulted for such decision. The cabinet meeting on the following day regarding Jo's fate is described in detail in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. Most officials expressed their shock at Jo Gwang-jo's arrest and Jungjong's intention to execute him. They entreated that he may have been extreme in his youthful zeal to improve the country but could not possibly have private agenda. Chief State Councillor Jeong Gwang-pil, who often clashed with Jo and was even approached by Nam Gon for support, entreated in tears: "I have frequently witnessed horrid calamities during the reign of deposed king (Yeonsangun), but how could I imagine to see such thing again even after meeting the wise king?" Chief Council and Six Ministries jointly entreated that punishing Jo and others on such charge without evidence would be a blot on the king's reputation. Eighteen younger officials requested to the king to imprison them with Jo Gwang-jo. Even Hong Sook, who became Justice Minister overnight and interrogated Jo, reported to the king that he was "deeply moved" by Jo's loyalty.

New Inspector General Yu Eun protested in even stronger terms: "If Jo Gwang-jo is guilty of crime, he should be punished in open and just manner ... Instead, Your Majesty is handing out such punishment after secret words by two people in the middle of night... What is so difficult about punishing few seonbis with authority of king that Your Majesty should do so secretly by sending a secret message?... If there is a crime, it should be dealt with clearly and justly, but Your Majesty appeared to trust and be friendly with your subjects on the outside while thinking of eliminating them in mind." Meanwhile, 150 Seonggyungwan students stormed the palace to protest Jo's arrest and filled the palace with shouts of entreaties, and later 240 students petitioned to claim Jo's innocence and requested to be imprisoned together. Such outpouring in Jo's support may have increased Jungjong's suspicion and anger. Later Chief State Councillor Jeong, Deputy State Councillor Ahn Dang and even War Minister Yi Jang-gon were removed from office for opposing Jo's execution.

Purge of Sarim Scholars

Jo Gwang-jo was completely caught off guard by the turn of the event. The Sarim faction had scored its biggest victory just four days ago when Jungjong granted their petition to revoke special status for 70 Hungu officials. He continued to believe that Jungjong was misled by wicked Hungu ministers and was confident that he could persuade the king of his loyalty once he could face him in the interrogation. He wrote to Jungjong of his fear of this incident becoming a bloody purge and entreated that he would not regret dying ten thousand times if only he could be granted an audience. However, he would never have a chance to see Jungjong again. Amid petitions for leniency, Jungjong commuted the death sentence to exile, and Jo Gwang-jo was exiled to Neung-ju. But less than a month later, Jungjong fired many ministers who entreated on Jo's behalf and reinstated Jo's death sentence by poison. Before drinking poison, Jo wrote a death poem declaring his loyalty and bowed four times toward the palace. Later when there was a severe drought in the country, people blamed that it was heaven's punishment for killing an innocent seonbi.

Kim Jung and three others were executed as well in 1520, and dozens of Sarim scholars were exiled. Many others left the central government in protest and retreated to rural provinces. In 1521, Ahn Dang's son allegedly plotted to assassinate Nam Gon and Shim Jung, for which a dozen people including Ahn Dang were executed. In all, 225 officials were affected by the purge. Most of Jo's reforms were rescinded with his fall. In the end, Jungjong abruptly abandoned his reformist agenda because he either lost confidence in Jo Gwango-jo's programs or feared that he would become too powerful in the future. While Jungjong and Jo Gwang-jo shared the reformist agenda, Jungjong was also chielfy interested in solidifying royal authority whereas the latter was more concerned with neo-Confucian ideology, in which the king must be governed and restricted by teachings of Confucius and Mencius.

The Third Literati Purge of 1519 was widely viewed as a missed opportunity to fulfill ideal neo-Confucian society by later generations because Joseon politics soon degenerated into power struggle among in-laws and relatives of the royal family. Later its victims, called Gimyo Sarim or "Wise men of Gimyo," were venerated as Confucian martyrs while instigators became symbols of wickedness for many generations (For instance, fermented fish of lowest quality is still called Gonjangyi, combined word from Nam Gon and Shim Jung's given names). Nam Gon, one of main instigators who fabricated the conspiracy, regretted his role in the purge late in his life and willed that all his writings be burnt. No writing of his remains except for one short poem although he was a famous writer.

Fourth Literati Purge of 1545

When Jungjong died in 1544 and the crown prince Injong became the twelfth king, Sarim's hopes proved to be true. He appointed Yi Eonjeok and other famous Sarim scholars to high positions and rehabilitated Jo Gwang-jo and other purge victims. Unfortunately for the Sarim faction, Injong's reign was also to be the shortest of Joseon kings. When Injong died eight months later and Myeongjong became the thirteenth king of Joseon at the age of twelve, his mother Queen Munjeong became the regent and her brother Yoon Won Hyung wielded enormous power. (Many in the Sarim faction believed that Injong was poisoned by Queen Munjeong, but there is no evidence that this was the case.) Lesser Yoon faction was not persecuted by Greater Yoon faction during Injong's reign, but Injong dismissed Yoon Won-hyung and Yoon Won-ro from their positions after they were impeached by the Greater Yoon faction. Now that he was reinstated, Yoon Wong-hyung accused Yoon Im and his supporters of plotting to put another prince instead of Myeongjong on the throne after Injong's death. This ploy at first backfired and led to his exile, but continued accusations and rumors of Yoon Im's treason led to the Fourth Literati Purge of 1545, in which the prince, Yoon Im, and nine of his supporters including Sarim scholars were executed. After this initial purge, Yoon Won-hyung continued to purge his rivals and Sarim scholars over next five years until the total death toll surpassed one hundred and many others including Yi Eonjeok were exiled. Yoon Won-hyung even killed his older brother Yoon Won-ro in the ensuing power struggle. After Queen Munjeong's death in 1565, Myeongjong exiled Yoon Won-hyung, who died or committed suicide the same year, and attempted to govern well by recruiting talented people but died two years later. Along with Kim Anro, Yoon Won-hyung is considered one of the worst politicians of Joseon dynasty.

Power Struggle of In-laws

Unlike other literati purges, the Fourth Literati Purge pf 1545, or Ulsa Sahwa (을사사화, 乙巳士禍), was largely a result of power struggle between relatives of the competing princes. After Jo Gwang-jo's fall, Nam Gon and Shim Jung's faction and Kim Anro's faction vied for power after Kim Anro's son married Jungjong's eldest daughter. Kim Anro was exiled by Nam Gon and Shim Jung for abusing power, but he returned from exile after Nam Gon's death and successfully drove out Shim Jung, who was accused of accepting bribes from Consort Park to help her put her son on the throne instead of crown prince. Later he framed Shim Jung and Consort Park on the charge of cursing the crown prince (A dead rat whose mouth, eyes, and ears were burnt with hot iron to make it look like a pig was discovered hanging from a tree in the crown prince's palace on his birthday. There also phrases cursing the crown prince, whose Chinese zodiac sign was pig. Consort Park was suspected for she was already known to be plotting to put her son on the throne instead. It was later found out to be Kim Anro's doing after his fall.) Consort Park, her son Prince Buksong, and Shim Jung were executed. Kim Anro now unleashed the reign of terror against his political enemies in the name of protecting the crown prince. He even attempted to depose Queen Munjeong, who gave birth to a son who was later to become Myeongjong, but this led to his downfall and execution in 1537.

After Kim Anro's fall, the crown prince Injong's maternal uncle Yoon Im and Queen Munjeong's brothers Yoon Won-ro and Yoon Won-hyung filled the power vacuum. (Yoon Im and Yoon Brothers were close relatives by that period's standards - Yoon Im's great-grandfather was older brother of Yoon Brothers' great-great-grandfather.) Many officials gathered around the two centers of power and developed into separate political factions. Yoon Im's faction became known as ‘Greater Yoon’ and the Yoon brothers' faction as ‘Lesser Yoon.’ By then, Jungjong promoted Sarim scholars again by recalling them from exile and reappointing to court positions to restrain Hungu faction's power. Many Sarim scholars joined the Greater Yoon since they had great hopes for the crown prince, who studied under Jo Gwang-jo and Yi Hwang and was greatly anticipated to become a benevolent ruler.

Auswirkungen

Diese vier Pogrome dezimierten die Sarim Fraktion und trieb sie in ländlichen Gebiete, fernab des Königshofes. Dort gründeten sie Schulen (Seowon genannt), um ihre Ideen auf diese Weise weiter zu tragen. Yi Hwang, zum Beispiel, zog sich nach dem vierten Pogrom aus der Politik zurück. Trotz wiederholter Aufforderungen des Hofes weigerte er sich lange Zeit an den Hof zurück zu kehren.

Nachdem Jo Gwang-jo einer Intrige zum Opfer fiel und aufgrund dessen 1519 hingerichtet wurde, flohen auch andere berühmte Gelehrte, wie Jo Shik, Seo Gyeong-deok und Seoung Soo-chim aus der Hauptstadt. Auch Jo Shik' lehnte eine Berufung zurück an den Hof ab. Er schrieb an den König Myeongjong: "Unter Eurer Majestät Regierung ist schon so viel schief gegangen und die Fundamente des Landes sind zusammengebrochen. Die Unterstützung des Himmels ist verspielt, wie auch die des Volkes. Die Mutter des Königs ist um das Land besorgt und meint es gut, aber sie ist eine Witwe, irgendwo im Palast. Eure Majesät ist jung, und erbt die Königswürde Eures verstorbenen Vaters. Wie ist es möglich, Tausenden von Naturkatastrophen zu begegnen und wie die Milliarden Scherben der Herzen des Volkes heilen?

Die Sarim-Anhänger gründeten Schulen und Akademien in ländlichen Gebieten, weitab des Hofes, um zumindest so ihre Ideen weiter zu tragen. Diese waren erfolgreich und brachten es zu einiger Blüte. Als nach dem Tod von König Myeongjong 1567 dessen jüngerer Bruder, König Seonjo, den Thron bestieg, gewannen die Sarim wieder an Einfluss, stiegen in entscheidende Verwaltungspositionen auf. Bis zum Ende der Joseon-Dystaie behielten sie bestimmenden Einfluss auf die Politik.

Modern reinterpretation

The above account of literati purges is based on widely accepted traditional understanding of the subject, which largely stems from the Sarim faction's point of view. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty and much of what we know about these events were largely written by Sarim scholars even before they emerged as the eventual victor. Some historians have tried to reinterpret the literati purges as a result of struggle between the Joseon kings who wanted to establish absolute monarchy and the arisocrats who claimed that the true loyalty to king was to guide him to become a benevolent Confucian philosopher-king by pointing out his mistakes if necessary. The Sarim scholars tended to occupy key positions in Three Offices, which put them in conflict with the king and high-ranking ministers. In this view, the distinction between Sarim and Hungu factions are thought to be largely artificial, and division within aristocracy was largely along the family connections rather than philosophical differences.

Other Purges

Following the Fourth Literati Purge of 1545, there were a series of other similar purges out of political struggle between different factions, but they are not called "literati purges," or sahwa (사화) in Korean, which specifically refers to persecution of Sarim scholars by the Hungu faction in late 15th and early 16th century. The later purges are instead called with various names such as oksa (meaning treason case), muok(false treason case), hwanguk (change of power), and bakhae (persecution, especially of those Catholic faith in 19th century). One notable example of the later purges is Treason Case of 1589, or Gichuk Oksa, which is sometimes called the fifth literati purge even though both the instigators and victims were of Sarim faction. In these later purges, the victimized faction would call the event "literati purge (sahwa)" to signify their innocence and the rival faction's wrongs.

• Oksa (Treason Case)
  • Shinsa Muok (신사무옥) or False Treason Case of 1521 - Three years after the Third Literati Purge of 1519, Jo Gwang-jo's supporters were accused of plotting to assassinate Nam Gon and Shim Jeong and were executed. It is more often considered a part of Third Literati Purge (Jungjong).
  • Gichuk Oksa (기축옥사) or Treason Case of 1589 - the bloodiest purge in Joseon history, in which the Western faction purged the rival Eastern faction. 1,000 people were executed or exiled (Seonjo).
  • Gyechuk Oksa (계축옥사) or Treason Case of 1613 - After Gwanghaegun rose to the throne, Greater Northern faction accused Lesser Northern faction of plotting to dethrone Gwanghaegun and make his half-brother the king. (The excesses of Greater Northern faction led to the coup d'état in which the Westerners and Southerners placed Injo on the throne.)
  • Shinyim Oksa (신임옥사) or Treason Cases of 1721 and 1722 - Leaders of Noron faction (split from Western faction) who supported Yeonyingun (later Yeongjo) advocated regency of Yeoningun in place of sickly Gyeongjong. They were accused of disloyalty, and four of them were executed in 1721. In 1722, Soron and Namin factions accused Noron faction of plotting to kill Gyeongjong, and eight leaders who had again advocated Yeonyingun's regency were executed.
  • Eulhae Oksa (을해옥사) or Treason Case of 1755 - After Yeonyingun rose to the throne and became Yeongjo, Soron faction was driven out of power in reaction to Shinyim Oksa. Five Soron members were accused of treason and were executed.
• Hwanguk (Turn of state) - Purges in Sukjong's reign is called hwanguk, meaning sudden change of government. They marked the reemergence of earlier purges after a century of peaceful rivalry between Southern and Western factions.
  • Gyeonshin Hwanguk (경신환국) or Turn of 1680 - Two leaders of Southern faction was accused of plotting to dethrone Sukjong by the Western faction (Sukjong).
  • Gisa Hwanguk (기사환국) or Turn of 1689 - The Western faction fell out of power after opposing the naming of crown prince. Song Siyeol and others were executed. (Sukjong)
  • Gaapsul Hwanguk (갑술환국) or Turn of 1694 - The Southern faction's attempt to purge Western faction on charge of plotting to reinstate deposed Queen Inhyeon backfires. The Southern faction would never recover from this purge politically. However, the Westerners already split into Noron and Soron factions. (Sukjong)
  • Shinchuk Hwanguk (신축환국) or Turn of 1721 - Noron faction loses power in the aftermath of Shinyim Oksa. (Gyeongjong)
  • Eulsa Hwanguk (을사환국) or Turn of 1725 - Yeongjo becomes the king, and Noron faction regains power.
  • Jeongmi Hwanguk (정미환국) or Turn of 1727 - Yeongjo replaces hardliners with moderates from both Noron and Soron faction.
• Bakhae (Persecution) - They were also called Saok(사옥), meaning "Heresy Case".
  • Sinhae Bakhae (신해박해) or Persecution of 1781 - First persecution of Catholicism in Korea. Noron's Byeokpa faction advocated persecution while Shipa faction opposed it. Two Catholics were executed, but persecution was limited after Jeongjo adopted Shipa faction's policy.
  • Shinyu Bakhae (신유박해) or Persecution of 1801 - After Jeongjo's death, Queen Jeongsun and conservative Byoekpa faction reversed many of Jeongjo's reforms and carried out the worst persecution of the Joseon Catholics, which was also aimed at the purge of liberal Shipa and Southern factions, some of whose leaders including Jeong Yak-yong were Catholics or had Catholic relatives. 300 people were executed, and Jeong Yak-yong was exiled. (Sunjo)
  • Gihae Bakhae (기해박해) or Persecution of 1839 - There was no persecution while Shipa was in power, but Byeoka regained power and resumed the persecution of Catholics by executing 119 people. (Heonjong)

Depictions in Korean mass media

The Korean literati purges are frequently depicted in Korean television dramas and movies. In Dae Jang Geum, main protagonist Jang Guem's father is a victim of the second literati purge. Jang Geum herself and her mentor Lady Han are framed in connection with the third literati purge while the male protagonist Min Jung Ho is portrayed as a follower of Jo Gwang-jo. In television drama Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin (2004-5), Yi Sun-shin's grandfather is depicted as a victim of third literati purge and Yi's father is arrested while paying respect to Jo Gwang-jo's spirit at Jo's abandoned house. The third and fourth literati purges also constitute main plot lines of the 2001 television drama "Ladies of the Palace". The first and second literati purges are depicted in television dramas "King and Queen" (1998–2000) and "King and I" (2007–2008) and 2005 film The King and the Clown.

Weblinks

Bill Caraway: Korea in the Eye of the Tiger. (text/html) 2006, abgerufen am 16. August 2014 (englisch). 

Literatur

• Edward Y. J. Chung: The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi T'oegye and Yi Yulgok: A Reappraisal of the 'Four-Seven Thesis' and its Practical Implications for Self-Cultivation. SUNY Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-7914-2275-5. 
• Ki-baek Yi: A New History of Korea. Kapitel 10: The Rise of the Neoconfucian Literati. 1984, ISBN 0-674-61576-X, S. 204 ff. (google.de [abgerufen am 16. August 2014]). 

Einzelnachweise

Kategorie:Koreanische Geschichte Kategorie:Pogrom Kategorie:Massaker